MUTUAL DIALOGUE& BETTER UNDERSTANDING

Le XXIeme Siècle : Le Siècle de l’idéologie islamiste ?

2009-12-27T12:19:00.000-08:00

Jamais aura-t-on parlé autant de l’Islam depuis l’époque médiévale pour ainsi dire. L’Islam, en tant que civilisation, ou l’islam en tant que culte,religion, ont été à toutes les sauces pour reprendre une expression assez familière. De l’avènement de la Seconde Intifada palestienienne, en passant par les terrorismes islamistes,la problématique de la Burqa et du voile dans l’espace public, sans oublier l’emergence croissante des nouveaux penseurs de l’islam et la croissance exponentielle que cette religion connait depuis une vingtaine d’années environ dans les pays developpés.De la crispation des esprits en passant par la cristallisation des sentiments, le monde musulman a semble-t-il depuis son "Age d'Or " connu une espèce de sclérose notamment intellectuelle face aux réalités mondaines. Les thématiques contemporaines abondent pour nous donner une idée des débats houleux sur le sort reservé à cet islam suspendu entre deux mondes : Un Islam de progrès ouvertement parlant et Un Islam nostalgique d’un passé combien glorieux à bien des égards. Des thématiques allant de la place de l’Islam au 21ème siècle,du role qu’il a à jouer en ce siècle de globalisation et de mondialisation, au clash des civilisations,en passant par la résurgence des « talibalismes » contemporains aux idéologies suicidaires, l’injustice et la ghettoisation croissantes des faubourgs des grandes villes musulmanes, le recul des valeurs laiques et democratiques,sans oublier l'apre lutte entre les partisans d’un islam orthodoxe attaché à ses dogmes et traditions et instrumentalisé par les adhérents farouches aux écoles de jurisprudence islamiques et les libertains et autres penseurs intellectuels qui en appelent à un reformisme necessaire et progressiste des bases de la religion musulmane en partant d’un revisionnisme des textes sacrés, leur relecture, leur contextualisation, le rapport du coran à la réalité et à la chose humaine. On se pose la question alors de savoir quel sort sera reservé à l’islam dans les années à venir. Ira-t-on vers une laicisation progressive de la foi islamique et de ses principes ou ira-t-on vers une cristallisation des positions ? Si l’incertitude en la matière demeure, il n’est point sujet au doute qu’il faille decider pour ou contre d’une seule voix de ce que le monde musulman d’aujourd’hui entend faire de l’islam de demain :Un islam pur et saint ou un islam syncretiste ou enfin un islam de convergence et en phase avec l’idéologie du progrès et des sciences. Les avis en la matière divergent selon qu’on est théologien et partisan d’une des quatres écoles de jurisprudence islamiques ou selon qu’on est issu de l’école de la Republique ou l’école laique en occident notamment pour ne pas dire selon qu’on est philosophe musulman. A notre humble avis, ni l’un ni l’autre fut-il théologien ou philosophe ne gagnera la voix de la Oummah islamique :Les théologiens assez méfiants à l'égard des philosophes avec leurs arguments scholastiques,hermeutiques ou hermeneutiques,et l’appui des hadith ,des traditions prophétiques, les philosophes avec leur pretention idéologique, leur esprit trop critique, leur prise de position souvent tranchée et leur incohérence ou mésentente quasi-perpetuelle en faveur d’une position unique,claire et definie font plutot pencher la balance en faveur des docteurs de la loi qui sont le plus souvent au service d’une théocratie qui ne dit pas son nom et proche aussi des pouvoirs politiques. Une chose parait certaine en l’état actuel des choses, seule l’idéologie capitaliste,mercantiliste, néolibérale au service des politiques, des puissances dites occidentales fait son petit bonhomme de chemin. Et il n’y a pas à attendre longtemps pour qu’elle s’infiltre petit à petit dans les sphères du religieux et du dogmatique au nom d’une valeur universelle qu’elle entend definir pretendument et sur laquelle elle entend reunir les dissendents autour d’une meme table à la cérémonie d’un banquet durant lequel mufti,pape,pretre,rabbin et autres chefs spirituels trinqueront à satiété.

philosophe et postphilosophe

2009-12-27T12:09:00.000-08:00

L’ère des philosophes s’est achevée apparemment. Voici que l’ère des postphilosophes se profile à l’horizon. L’Age d’or de la philosophie a cedé sa place à l’Age de la postphilosophie.La Philosophie, semble t il ,au travers de ses courants et idéologies de pensées a offert ce qu’elle a de « plus succulentes» en idées fécondes. Elle a guidé apparemment vers la clairvoyance, la critique, l’esprit critique, la vertu,la quete de soi, l’interrogation sur des valeurs propres et les valeus d’autrui.Elle en est venue meme à s’interroger sur la science et ses pratiques ainsi que ses limites . Elle a mis en garde contre les idéologies infondées et celles qui encouragent negativement ou positivement l’idéologie du progrès. Le philosophe se voulait un guide, un sage, un chercheur de verités impossedées ;Il questionne sans pour autant trouver la réponses la plus idouane à ses questionnements. Ses conclusions passent pour relatives et parfos portent la marque d’un universel ou d’une vérité universelle.Puisque toute conclusion relative,inachevée en appelle à un autre questionnement, il ne cesse donc de chercher la réponse qui sied à ce continum de questionnements perpetuels étudiant tous les angles possibles par lesquels il pourrait enfin avoir des réponses satisfaisantes à la limite de la prudence, mère de sureté dit-on. Avec l’ébranlement des branches de la philosophie et la spécialisation des sciences, le philosophe se contenta dès lors de se fonder sur les revelations des sciences humaines et exactes pour mener sa reflexion critique par la suite. La philosophie a perdu ainsi ses pretentions de detentrice de savoir universel, encyclopédique.Avec l’avènement des courants de pensée contemporains avec les structuralistes, les existentialistes, les heidegerriens, et les pères de la Négritude et de la Déconstruction, le profile du philosophe et de la philosophie a semble t il changé.Avec un tel avènement, c’est bien les prétentions des idéologies philosophiques qui ont été questionnées.Et, l’on est allé à se demander jusqu’ou les idéologies philosophies sont reductrices et reductibles et ne tiennent pas totalement compte de certains aspects culturels,civilisationnels du vécu humain.La question n’est plus en quoi la philosophie guide vers la vérité, mais en quoi L’homme philosophe lui meme influencé par ses propres préjugés,prétentions, denature ses discours.En quoi le philosophe sans le savoir influence sa propre pensée et son raisonnement visiblement rigoureux ? L’inconscient et ses effets a surement sur ce point bien de choses à reveler aux philosophes eux memes sans oublier les limites éventuelles du rationnalisme idéologique et l’intuition passant pour évidente vérité . Dans ce climat de suspicion, d’incertitude, de remise en cause, naquit le profile et ce personnage du postphilosophe. Qu’est qu’un postphilosophe ? Un érudit ? un philosophe à part entière ? un scientifique ? Un esprit Critique ? un Critique de la philosophie, des idéologies philosophiques et religieuses ? Le Postphilosophe Versus le Philosophe Le postphilosophe est ce « proton philosophe » du « philosophe electron ».Le « philosophe electron » classique est un promeneur à la fois dans la vie réelle et dans la vie des idées. Le Postphilosophe est ce « proton philosophe » appelant désesperemment le « philosophe electron » à sa rencontre. Il est le double du philosophe.Il est celui qui ébranle les certitudes et pretentions du « philosophe electron ». Puisque ce dernier s’évertue en voir dans les choses leurs esprits, le postphilosophe est celui qui recherche l’esprit des choses. Il est celui qui dit au philosophe « Tiens ! j’ai trouvé un issu à notre problème mais pour que tu y accèdes il te faut faire un long détour.Et, puisque je ne puis y entrer sans toi, j’attendrai que tu finisses ton détour ».L’adhérence du philosophe depend du degré de certitude que le postphilosophe avance sur ses affirmations. Le postphilosophe est le « philosophe anti-electron ». Quand ils se rencontrent, bien sur, ils clashent dans ce champ de batailles dans lequel chacun cherche à se frayer un chemin .Et, puisque le postphilosophe est celui qui s’évertue à montrer les limites des methodes de pensée et des conclusions erronnées du philosophe, il va de soi que ses conclusions paraissent plus pertinentes. Il dit au philosophe avant de regarder là ou tu es tombé, regardes plutot ce qui t’a fait trébucher.Il va de soi que le postphilosophe est detenteur d’un savoir plus conséquent que le philosophe lui-meme.Car pour pouvoir le critiquer ,ce philosophe, il faut le connaitre, et connaitre sa pensée. En celà, le postphilosophe prend le manteau de l’esprit critique. Il devient critique des critiques du philosophe. Du Discours philosophique et littéraire: Le philosophe est celui qui, dans ses discours philosophiques et littéraires , laissent toujours la marque de l’esprit critique.Il laisse transparaitre des arguments pour defendre ses idées suivant les méthodologies et les figures de styles propres à la réfutation ou à la défense d’idées. Le Philosophe est un defenseur inavouable d’une idée à la base de nature pretentieuse teintée de préjugé idéologique.Il vous dit « Regardez la stylistique, regardez la force des arguments,regardez les vérités, ne suivent-elles une ligne droite, ne suivent-elles pas une direction universelle, ne suivent-elles pas une certaine beauté, des choses relevant de la nature (pure)meme ainsi que de la nature de l’homme? » .Il vous dit aussi puisque tout part de quelque chose, aussi entendons nous sur cette chose passant pour irréfutable pour fonder une vérité passant pour universelle et accessible à l’esprit et à la raison. Le Postphilosophe,lui, vous dit que le penseur dicte au discours sa loi. Le postphilosophe vous dit que tout n’est pas réductible à la raison. Il vous dit que les vérités supposées absolues du philosophe ,immuables, sont presque toujours relatives et sujettes à caution. Il vous que si le fondement est biasé, alors la verité le serait. Il vous dit l’Universel du philosophe n’est pas l’universel de l’Homme puisque selon lui l’universel est un idéal en perpetuelle quete par l’Homme.

Oh Vous : les Hypocrites

2009-12-27T12:05:00.000-08:00

Oh ! Vous les Mécréants !: Les « Kafirun »

Ayant grandi dans la foi islamique, ayant été bercé au gré de la pensée et du dogme islamiques, je me demandai souvent que signifiait ce terme « Kafirun » que je recitai au cours de mes prières souvent à l’aube ou dans la nuit .Bien de musulmans le recitent aussi lors de voyages. Ce mot « Kafirun » est plus qu’intriguant à bien d’égards. Il a une dénotation et une connotation. Très souvent, la connotation est plutot negative que positive pour ne pas dire essentiellement negative. J’ai eu l’opportunité au travers de la literrature arabo-musulmane et dans les traditions islamiques de le rencontrer ce dit terme « Kafirun ».Souvent, il m’a semblé que « Kafirun » est l’opposé de « Croyants, fidèles musulmans » ;Les « Kafirun » paraissaient tout ceux qui reniaient l’avènement et la prophecie ainsi que les revelations du Koran.Tout ce qui font le mal sur terre et ne suivent pas la Volonté d’Allah sur terre et rejette les messages du Coran et les paroles du Prophète.A la limite, les « Kafirun » si vous me passez l’expression passaient pour des « inhumains » ,des « impurs », indignes de considerations humaines.Dans un contexte idéologique, culturel, ou historique, il allait de soi que ce terme aura une connotation negative surtout quand on songe aux guerres de religion qui ont jalonné des siècles notamment au Moyen Age ou l’époque médiévale. Dans ce contexte, etre qualifiés de « Kafirun » vous exposent évidemment à une certaine meprisante attitude de la part de certains musulmans plus attachés aux traditions et aux conservatismes doctrinaux islamistes. Un tel terme au fil du temps, au fil de l’histoire tendait à avoir et a toujours il faut le dire, une certaine connotation negative. On n’est pas surpris alors que parfois les « Kafirun » soient sujets à la haine ou à la stigmatisation, choses qui prennent de l’ampleur avec les prejugés raciaux et la meconnaissance d’autrui, de sa pécificité, de sa culture propre. Toutefois, si l’on s’interrogeait sur le sens du terme etymologiquement en dehors relativement de toute idéologie d’intolerance, le mot n’est pas forcement connoté negativement ou du moins tend à etre neutre.

« Kafirun » est un nom pluriel en arabe. Il signifierait selon les differentes interpretations « Mécreants, Impies, Impurs, non-croyants, infidèles » données dans les traductions du coran et/ou des traditions prophetiques. Toutefois, il y a bien une nuance à faire ici. Etymologiquement, ce terme provient de « Kafir » de la racine « Kafara ». Et le verbe « Kafara » susceptible d’etre traduit par « Mecreance » ou « Mecroire » n’a pas apparemment un sens idéologiquement consideré ou positionné pour ou contre la croyance en un Dieu monotheiste islamique ou pas. Il signifierait « Mecroire » mais dans le sens d’etre pretendument un ignorant du fait et de la veracité religieux mais au fond connaissant la Verité la vraie.Un « Kafir » se definit comme étant un individu qui cacherait en sa possession le savoir et refuse d’admettre que ce qui est revelé proviendrerait d’un supposé Dieu tout puissant et auteur des Ecritures Saintes comme le Koran. Le « Kafir » aurait plutot le profile d’un hypocrite à bon escient.Celui là meme qui sachant la verité persiste et signe à ne pas l’admettre comme tel. Une telle idée presuppose alors que l’evidence est gratuitement offerte à ce qui ont des oreilles pour entendre et des yeux pour voir, gratuitement offerte à la raison intelligible. Or, il va de soi que tous les hommes ne sont pas forcement predisposés à croire sur parole sans un examen critique et approfondi des faits.faut-il dès lors les considerer comme « Mecreants, Impies ,et autres » ? L’evidence d’une certaine foi n’engage que celui qui la professe et la credulité de ce qui y adhèrent ou pas.On se demande alors si évidemment un philosophe fut il musulman n’entre pas dans la categorie de ces « Kafirun » ou ces « Hypocrites » comme sous entendaient un certain Imam AL Ghazali qui s’est opposé farouchement aux pretentions de verité par les philosophes eux-mêmes. Il irait sans excès apparemment jusqu’à les classer parmi les Gens qui s’égarent ou se sont égarés de la droite ligne, le chemin droit.Le philosophe musulman tout comme le mecroyant consideré de façon populaire comme étant l’occidental, le chrétien, le juif, ou l’indu ou boudhhiste, bref celui qui n’adhère pas aux principes islamiques qui se veulent universels et d’origine divine, est presque toujours sujet à la suspicion. Sa foi de croyant est presque toujours mise à l’épreuve. ou douteuse en raison de l’esprit critique et la tendance à trop spéculer et à rechercher une Vérité donnée alors qu’elle est ou est sensée se trouver dans les Ecritures Saintes dont l’Auteur n’est autre que le Créateur Supreme ALLAH ou Dieu. Ce terme « Kafirun » englobe ainsi tout un ensemble d’individus aux traits distincts très souvent et il n’y a pas etymologiquement parlant une catégorie précise pour laquelle il se refèrerait uniquement. Le douteux, le Sceptique aussi bien que l’infidèle, le polytheiste, le mecroyant sont de près ou de loin plus ou moins considerés comme « hérétiques » et « Kafirun » par une certaine orthodoxie et tradition islamiques. Aussi, il n’est pas souvent etonnant que des penseurs speculatifs soient sujets au rejet de la frange orthodoxe des écoles de pensée s’adonnant à une stricte observance des traditions et des enseignements du Koran ,des Salafs, et autres traditions des compagnons du Prophète des musulmans. Faut-il y voir ici l’origine de la decadence de l’humanisme musulman qui s’est epanoui durant des siècles et de l’esprit critique au profit d’une forme d’intolérance et d’intégrisme criard ?

L empire soninké du Ghana

2009-12-27T12:03:00.000-08:00

Ethnologie:

Le Mali est un pays sahélien situé en Afrique occidentale. Il fait une superficie de près de 1242000 kilomètre carré. Si les trois quarts pratiquement du pays sont en partie désertiques,il est tout de même traversé par un réseau fluvial assez important notamment le fleuve Niger. De sa population estimée à près de 11 millions d’hts, la majeure partie de ses habitants sont de confession religieuse musulmane et la langue locale dominante est le Bambara ou selon une variante le Dioula. Une des richesses étonnantes du pays provient de la coexistence pacifique des différentes couches sociales et ethniques. Pour beaucoup de sociologues, ceci serait du fait de certaines pratiques sociales déjà ancrées dans les cultures africaines notamment la parenté à plaisanteries, véritable support de cohésion sociale et facteur de régulations notamment dans le cas des règlements de conflits sociaux. De ses nombreuses ethnies dont l’histoire a marqué bien de générations d’écrivains et d’historiens,une ethnie si l’on peut la qualifier ainsi tient particulièrement notre attention. Il s’agit de l’ethnie Soninké aussi connue sous le nom de l’ethnie Marka ou Mohaka,les Mohaka étant les soninké qui ont émigré vers les pays environnant le royaume du Mali anciennement. Aussi, nous nous attèlerons sur une brève historique des Soninké d’une part, et d’autre part nous nous intéressons de près aux us et pratiques de cette ethnie qui a tant suscitée l’admiration des anciens ethnologues et historiens de par le passé. Du Royaume « Soninké » de Ghana Ceux qu’on a appelé « Soninké » ou « Marka » à tort puisque le terme semble mal approprié passent pour etre les anciens habitants de l’ancien royaume dénommé Ghana. Contrairement à ce qu’on croit, il semble bien établi que les habitants du Ghana, royaume situé aux alentours de l’actuelle Mauratanie recoupant à la fois une partie de l’ancien royaume du Mali,seraient bel et bien des Soninké.Ce sont eux qui seraient à l’origine de la création et de la riche civilisation qui s’y était développée. Toutefois, certains historiens soutiennent que le Ghana d’alors était plus tôt un royaume « cosmopolite »,multiculturel dans lequel coexistait une multitude de communautés. Même si des preuves tangibles semblent soutenir ce point de vue, il n’en demeure pas moins que l’historicité et la tradition orale appuient substantiellement la thèse selon laquelle la majorité y compris les pères fondateurs proviennent ou sont originaires de l’ethnie Soninké.Au delà de ce débat historique, il n’échappe à personne pour qui connaît l’histoire de l’Afrique que l’ancien empire du Ghana reste une fascination pour l’imaginaire du peuple noir voire une curiosité insatiable pour les historiens occidentaux..L’empire du Ghana passerait pour une formidable épopée à l’image de l’épopée Mandingue. Les quelques explorateurs et historiens arabes ou berbères arabisants restaient émerveillés devant l’organisation sociale, la richesse, et l’administration « hiérarchisée » de la société patriarcale « Soninké ».Un explorateur et historien arabe disait de la richesse notamment aurifère du Ghana qu’elle était telle qu’il suffisait le matin tel des roses à cueillir au petit matin de se baisser et d’en ramasser tant l’abondance (du sous sol) semblait à perte de vue. C'est en hommage à ce royaume plus exactement à cet empire du Ghana que après son indépendance l’actuel Ghana a pris le nom du dit empire d’antan. Même si la richesse du Ghana est restée une constance dans l’imaginaire et l’historique du dit empire dans les ouvrages de vulgarisation ou dans les archives historiques, l’on omet souvent de s’intéresser à ce qui ont très probablement contribué à l’épanouissement de l’empire en question que sont les Soninké. Des « Soninké » ou « Marka » Ce qu’on appelle les « Soninké » sont une ethnie répandue largement en Afrique notamment en Afrique occidentale. C’est une communauté d’individus soudés entre eux et dont la préoccupation majeure était le commerce. Avant les prises de contact avec l’islam, les Soninké pratiquaient l’animisme à l’image de bien de sociétés africaines. La croyance aux esprits et aux mânes, esprits des défunts restent d’ailleurs un fait ancré dans la mentalité des Soninkés. C’est au travers de leurs activités de commerce mais aussi de conquêtes puisque ils menèrent batailles également dans l’asservissement des populations d’autres ethnies pour les faire esclaves et travailleurs dans les mines d’exploitation d’or ou dans l’enrollement militaire pour la protection rapprochée de la royauté et de l’empire. Le modèle d’intégration des esclaves était fait de tel sorte que l’esclave devienne ,pratiquement,t et se sente comme partie intégrante de la nouvelle société dont il devait défendre les intérêts. Même si l’esclave avait une place à part entière dans la société , il reste qu’il occupait une fonction sociale et pour ce faire il n’était pas rare qu’on l’honore pour ce service rendu. Et la hiérarchisation aidant, chaque membre, y compris la catégorie des esclaves, au sein de la société semblait bien connaître la place qu’il était sensé ou est sensé occuper .Les rôles paraissaient bien définis pour chaque classe sociale donnée. Pour ce qui est des classes sociales, la société se divisait en royauté ou seigneurie, en vassaux ,voire en guerriers, en forgerons , et enfin en esclaves. Avec l’Islam, une nouvelle catégorie sociale s’est intégrée dans la société. Il s’agit de la classe des Marabouts. Ces Marabouts n’ont pas une position claire dans la hiérarchie sociale. Ils ne sont pas considérés esclaves mais ils n’ont pas également le statut de nobles. Ils ne sont pas partie intégrante de la catégorie des guerriers ou des forgerons. Ils ont une fonction de second rang. Parfois, consultés pour l’augure bonne ou mauvaise, pour la bonne marche des affaires ou pour la protection individuelle et sociale. Il arrivait pourtant qu’ils participèrent aux batailles auprès des chefs et rois quand la situation l’exigeait Avec l’arrivée de l’Islam et par le biais du commerce transsaharien, l’Islam contribua à modifier profondément l’organisation et les croyances des peuples de la région d'alors. Beaucoup de Soninké se convertissaient à la nouvelle religion et à commencer par les rois et chefs traditionnels. L’islam et l’animisme même si opposés paraissaient étonnamment coexister dans la société même si encore une fois des conflits d’influence et stratégiques n’ont pas manqué de voir le jour. Une sorte de compromis social ou d’entente précaire a permis au camp des animistes et des musulmans à pouvoir vivre cote à cote. Devenue musulmane et ayant entamée une profonde relation de commerce avec les pays d’Afrique du Nord voire d’Orient dans une certaine mesure, une large majorité des Soninké commençaient à s'initier aux habitudes et pratiques des peuples arabes confondant l’Islam avec panarabisme ambiant qu’il incorporait. Des pratiques inconnues dans la société commençaient à faire leur apparition. L’usage des amulettes aux versets coraniques, les boubous notamment blancs devenus symboles d’ornements corporels islamiques,l’usage courant des chameaux dans le commerce et ainsi de suite. Avec l’entrée en contact avec le monde externe ou extérieur et l’ouverture d’esprit requise, la « pensée critique » commença à envahir la culture Soninké. L'on commença à stigmatiser toute pratique qui relevait du paganisme et l’on condamnait toute confusion entre l’islam pure tel que enseigné par l’orthodoxie et un certain islam que certains se plaisent à qualifier de « noir » puisque supposé incorporer des pratiques animistes contraires aux doctrines rigoureuses de la foi islamique. Incorporant des traits animistes ne serait pas la seule pratique qui jetterait le discrédit sur la foi islamique réelle des soninké avec leur relation avec le Divin, d’autres pratiques sociales peu connues du monde extérieur en rajoutent davantage sur les dérives sociologiques constatées. Du Poids de la Tradition aux Tabous et Interdits Chez les Soninké, tout commence des la naissance. Des l’annonce de l’accouchement de l’enfant jusqu’à sa vie adulte voire au-delà meme. Contrairement à ce qu’on croit, les Soninké préparent le devenir de leur progéniture des bas age. Mais auparavant, puisque l’enfant est le fruit d’une union entre un couple dans leur relation conjugale, il importe pour le Soninké de savoir si la femme avec qui il entend fonder une famille est fertile et si elle a un aura positif, la « bonne étoile ».Pour ce faire, il lui faudrait absolument consulter les augures. Selon l’avis du marabout ou du charlatan, il jugerait de la suite. Cette situation se déroule dans le cas ou c’est l’homme à bon escient qui cherche l’épouse auprès de qui il aspire pour l’union ;Cependant, il n’est pas rare qu’on lui propose , « offre »,la ou les femmes issues de proches parents ou faisant partie de la grande famille. Dans ce cas, l’homme n’a guère d’options que d’accepter vu la situation contraignante qui résulterait d’un refus catégorique et vu le poids lourd de la tradition et enfin vu le respect et l’honneur sous entendus dans l’offre. Mais parmi les multitudes de femmes à sa portée, il n’est pas rare qu’une seule fasse office de femme de foyer, « la bonne étoile » et de favorite En général, les enfants de la favorite comme dans tout foyer polygame font l’objet d’une attention particulière de la part de la famille du mari de la femme et du mari aussi. Le plus souvent, ce sont ces enfants qui constitueront le relais de la famille et perpétueront les œuvres du père et du chef de famille. Donc, pour un soninké, il demeure crucial de savoir si la « bonne étoile » tant attendue serait à portée de main ou pas. Une fois la dulcinée trouvée, elle devient l’objet de toute l’attention du Mari. Tout serait entrepris pour lui faciliter la vie dans le foyer ce qui ne va pas sans jalousie de la part des autres co-épouses ou femmes de la grande famille. Une fois les enfants de la « bonne étoile » venus au monde, les tractations iront bon train. D'abord, l’on consulte les augures pour savoir quel avenir est réservé à l’enfant, et quel impact il aura sur la situation de la famille. Ceci vaut pour le garçon mais aussi souvent pour la fille. Pour ce qui est de la fille, des spécificités existent. Dans la société « Marka », la fille est destinée dès sa naissance à un mari. Bien avant sa naissance et au stade de fœtus dans les entrailles de sa mère, l’on commence à spéculer sur la portée. A coup sur, si la portée est une fille, alors il est une forte chance qu’il soit l’épouse d’un proche parent de la famille en général un cousin ou un parent éloigné du moment seulement que des liens de parenté existent et que le mariage ne poserait pas de problèmes sociologiques ou traditionnels. Si cet aspect de la tradition soninké constitue une pratique commune aux soninké fussent ils du Mali ou dans les régions et pays environnant le Mali, il reste que des spécificités existent quand même selon qu’on est soninké du Mali ou d’ailleurs. Les « Mahokas » ou « Mohakas »ou les soninké de la diaspora Les « Mahoka » se réclament originellement du Mandé. Ce sont les soninké qui ont quitté le Mali au cours des siècles passés et se sont installés notamment au Burkina, en Cote D’ivoire et une partie dans la region guinéenne. Aux contacts avec d’autres peuples notamment des cotes maritimes et fluviales,des "Mahokas" ont développé des attitudes d’adaptation spécifique à eux seuls. Même si ils partagent toutes les croyances des soninkés, il reste que le statut de la femme dans la société « Mohaka » diffère un peu de celui des Soninké. Une femme « Mohaka » a le loisir par exemple de faire du commerce et la société même si sous emprise des hommes, n’y voit guère d'inconvénients. Bien au contraire, elle encourage la femme Mohaka dans cette activité lucrative qui l’occupe et qui plus est dont elle tire fierté. De plus, il arrive souvent que le peu de revenus qu’elle tire de son commerce, eh bien qu’elle en fasse usage lorsque il revient à elle de faire cuisine à son tour au sein d’une famille polygame. Ceci serait une question d’honneur par ailleurs que d’avoir de quoi préparer pour le mari et ses enfants sans avoir recours à l’appui éventuel et constant du mari. On ne le dit pas assez, mais traditionnellement, la femme « Mahoka » éprouve de la gène à demander de l’argent à son mari quand vient son tour de faire la cuisine pour la grande famille. Si la femme « Mohaka » prend plaisir à s’adonner à une activité lucrative outre les préoccupations quotidiennes de la gestion de la famille, du mari et l’éducation des enfants,il parait surprenant que l’ « homme Mohaka » sur ce point présente un contraste. Si il revient à l’homme de combler les femmes et sa famille large, s’il lui revient de faire face aux dépenses de la famille, il reste que une des préoccupations majeures de l’ « homme Mohaka » reste la recherche du plaisir charnel. Une seule femme ne suffit à elle seule à combler un « Mohaka ». L’on tenterait de généraliser cette idée à l’africain en général ou au noir tout court. La femme est une priorité pour tout « Mohaka » digne de ce nom après qu’il s’est acquitté de ses devoirs de chef de foyer et de père. Souvent, l’homme Mohaka une fois avoir eu un chez soi et une fois avoir eu un revenu suffisant, ne s’occupe plus trop. L’occidental se soucierait du développement individuel et psychologique de la cellule familiale, pour le « Mohaka » ceci incomberait à la société et aux femmes. Le laisser-aller demeure en la matière.Cet ensemble de traits qu’on pourrait qualifier de particularités ne sont les seuls observables chez les soninké émigrés en Afrique. Une tradition qui touche bon nombre de communautés noires en Afrique demeure. Il s’agit de l’excision des jeunes filles. Pour les « Mohaka », la notion de la virginité des jeunes filles jusqu’au mariage est un point d’honneur pour les parents de ces filles notamment les mères et celles qui font office de mères dans la grande famille. Tout est mis en œuvre pour soustraire la jeune fille à la tentation des hommes. Avec le concours de l’Islam, cette pratique s’est intensifiée. Les jeunes filles sont le plus souvent sous une robe noire au regard voilé et elles sont souvent interdites de permission à moins d’une permission expresse. Et en général, la majorité des femmes soninké y compris les femmes « Mohaka » sont réputées être excisées. Beaucoup seraient toujours en faveur de cette pratique et certaines la pratiquent clandestinement. Comme c’est une tradition longue et séculaire, et comme c’est avant tout une affaire de femmes, les hommes n’ont souvent le droit de paroles ; D’ailleurs, ce n’est point leurs préoccupations primaires. En dehors de l’excision et du mariage précoce qu’on observe à la fois chez les soninké et chez les « Mohaka », d’autres "dérives" de la tradition subsistent toujours toutefois ancrées au sein des familles . Des tabous qu’on brise rarement. Du Tabou Brisé La polygamie dont font l’objet les Soninké ne date guère d’hier. Rares sont les Soninkés qui ne sont pas polygames ou issus de famille(s) polygame(s).Ce qui s’accompagne d’une complexité de problématiques .D’abord,il y a la problématique de l'héritage. La gestion de l’héritage une fois le chef de famille et la première épouse morts devient une véritable casse tete pour les héritiers d’autant plus que la famille du père et la famille de la ou des mère(s) disent avoir droit d’héritage sur la fortune du défunt. Souvent, les conflits d'intérêts éclatent entre les membres de la famille du défunt chef de famille entre eux-mêmes et entre les descendants directs du défunt et les autres membres de la grande famille du défunt notamment les frères et sœurs, les oncles, cousins et cousines des parents. Il n’est pas rare qu’on en vienne à l’usage de la magie noire et aux envoutements qui sont considérés comme des faits réels dans la mentalité africaine sans pour autant qu’on en ait des preuves scientifiques. A ce titre, la philosophie occidentale n’exclue pas la réalité du phénomène ;Elle en admet l’existence mais insiste sur le fait que de telles pratiques ne sont compréhensibles sur le plan de la rationalité ce qui a poussé beaucoup à leur nier tout simplement toute existence éventuellement à tort. L'usage de la magie à elle seule dans le règlement des conflits familiaux constitue à lui seul un autre tabou et une « dérive » des pratiques courantes de la communauté soninké. L’histoire de la magie ne date pas de maintenant. Elle remonte aux indiens d'Amérique, voire aux indiens d’Inde, en passant par la Perse et jusqu’à l'Égypte antique. D’ailleurs, on pense que c’est de l'Égypte qu’elle s’est répandue en Afrique australe et orientale et de la région orientale non loin de la corne de l’Afrique, elle se serait retrouvée en Afrique occidentale. La magie aurait été utilisée pour conjurer les mauvais sorts et pour des besoins folkloriques. On l’utilisait pour des besoins thérapeutiques également. Son usage dans les prises de contact avec le Divin ou les esprits semblent être attesté chez certains anciens peuples. Avant tout, l’on parlait pas à l’époque d’une magie blanche, mais c’est avec l’islam et les religions monothéistes que la notion de magie blanche ou claire a vu le jour. Par ailleurs, en passant, les doctrines rigoureuses et orthodoxes de ces religions les condamnent sans appel. La pratique de la magie dite blanche est chose courante en Afrique et ailleurs aussi. Mais la particularité de l’Afrique provient du fait qu’elle fait l’affaire de pseudo marabouts ou charlatans qui se frottent les mains en raison de la manne financière qu’elle engendre. Elle proviendrait aussi du fait qu’on utilise souvent qu’à des fins maléfiques. En général, c’est pour jeter des mauvais sorts ou pour circonscrire le développement de certaines personnes nanties ou bien placées qu’on en use. De telle chose passerait pour banale pour les occidentaux, voire ridicules, mais il en est autrement pour les noirs notamment d’Afrique. Et en faire usage pour ruiner les autres, voici une des pratiques dont ne se privent guère les Soninké si la situation l’exige que cela soit sur un plan personnel ou professionnel. Loin de nous de diaboliser ou stigmatiser une communauté donnée et qui du reste a brillé de par le passé pour son savoir faire notamment. Mais, la réalité cachée sur le terrain au vu et au su de tous voilà une chose que n’importe qui pourrait constater .Et pour revenir aux propos cités, l’usage de la magie noire et blanche dans le dessein de nuire n’est pas que observé chez les soninké mais ces derniers passent pour maitres en la matière. Ils s’y connaissent en animisme et sont suffisamment imprégnés de la culture et la science coraniques pour en tirer avantages. Et le plus souvent, le Marabout ou le charlatan d’une grande famille soninké demeure le marabout du fils ou des fils ou éventuellement des filles après le décès du chef de famille. Donc, cette circonstance favorise la tendance à la pratique. Et il quasi impossible de se défaire de ce Marabout ou charlatan au risque d’y perdre sa vie. Souvent, l’exile parait l’issue, mais selon bien de soninké, avec les moyens de transport actuels, l’exile ne suffirait plus. Cela dit, la magie dans le mal serait bien ancrée dans la mentalité Soninké. Et elle commence entre frères de sang. Puisque souvent il suffit que l’un des héritiers de la grande famille polygame au détriment des autres réussisse pour que le dessein mal sain voit le jour. Et souvent, pour un homme soninké, n’avoir point d'amulettes puissantes et ne pas se préparer physiquement,moralement, mentalement pour l’affrontement mystique aussi bien physique c’est déchoir. Il est une forte chance que lorsque vous manquez de respect à un soninké pour une raison ou une autre ou que vous portez préjudice à son autorité ou à sa dignité qu’il vous le fasse savoir sinon qu’il vous envoute à mort. Donc, entre frères de sang issus ou non de familles polygames la bataille physique et mystique qui les attend les poussent à être méfiants à l’égard de l’un l’autre et à être toujours sur le qui vive. Si ce conflit d'intérêts existe entre frères de sang, il va de soi que les proches parents auront à prendre position par rapport à cela. Ce qui ne ferait qu’agrandir le fossé de l’entente entre les parties et faire régner un climat de tension voire un passage à des actes malfaisants ; A coté de cet aspect, un autre aspect ressort de l’observation des communautés soninké. Ceci a un lien direct dans leurs relations avec les autres communautés en voisinage et au sein de l'ethnie elle-même. Il est courant de voir que les soninké ont toujours préféré un mariage intra-éthnique, en d’autres termes mêmes, un mariage qui a lieu dans le cadre strict d’une même ethnie. Les Soninké ne donnent presque jamais leurs filles à marier aux étrangers encore moins à d’autres ethnies qui vivent à leur coté. Les hommes soninké ont toujours une femme soninké dans leur giron qu’elle soit cachée de tous ou connue publiquement. Cela dit, bien de sociologues ont cherché à en savoir la raison véritable. Les raisons pourtant ne sont pas si complexes que cela. D’abord, on prétend que les Soninké seraient racistes. Dans une certaine mesure, l’on constate des cas de racisme en effet, mais ils sont isolés . Le racisme apparent ne rend pas totalement compte de ce phénomène. Il y a l’influence des liens de parenté aussi. Le fait de maintenir des liens de parenté entre les individus et permettre aux membres de la communauté d être soudés davantage. Mais la raison la plus probable est que ce mariage intra-éthnique permet au flux de capitaux et à la richesse de ne circuler qu’au sein de la famille ou de la grande famille. L’objet de telle pratique de mariage réside dans le fait que les soninké sont réticents à partager leurs biens et richesses avec une famille élargie provenant d’une autre communauté. Ils préfèrent que l’argent reste dans la famille ou aux mains de proches parents. Donc, il s’agit d’une stratégie d’épargne plus qu’un maintien de liens de parenté. Voici en substance la Vérité camouflée des pratiques communautaires des soninké. L'analyse ne prétend pas être exhaustive. Mais elle permet de voir la subtilité et les paradoxes et aussi les dérives de cette communauté si habile de par le passé. Meme si des pratiques comme le mariage précoce observé chez les Dogons du Mali et l’excision ne sont typiques des soninké, il devient impératif à l’heure des sciences modernes et des philosophies contemporaines de jeter les bases d’une nouvelle vision et d’un nouveau paradigme susceptible de faire prendre conscience au monde entier de la réalité de certaines pratiques à condamner avec force et d’instaurer un climat de respect des droits de l’homme et des individus à vivre en paix sans craindre de menace de qui que ce soit. Feindre d’ignorer que des maux graves continuent de frapper les sociétés africaines ne rend guère service. Et en appeler à la réalité d’une nouvelle approche philosophique et sociologique qui met en avant les valeurs sures et dynamiques ne peuvent qu'être salutaires. Et faire savoir et évaluer les maux et les traditions inacceptables de nos jours , tel est l’objet d'être de tout penseur. Et comme le soutenait le philosophe grec Cicéron « Qui n'empêche pas le Mal, le favorise ».

Arabie Saoudite : un imam noir à la Grande Mosquée de La Mecque

2009-08-05T16:39:00.000-07:00

Arabie Saoudite : un imam noir à la Grande Mosquée de La Mecque
Écrit par New York Times
Sources: New York Times,extrait de Maliactu
Avril 2009 11:18
Dans son édition d’hier (samedi 11 avril 2009), le New York Times dresse le portrait de l’Imam Adil Kalbani, le premier homme de couleur à accéder à la très haute fonction d’imam de la Grande Mosquée de La Mecque, au cœur de laquelle se trouve la Ka’aba, vénérée par les Musulmans du monde entier. Selon le New York Times, l’imam Adil Kalbani, fils d’immigrant noir avait fait, il y a deux ans de cela, un rêve prémonitoire dans lequel il devenait l’imam de la Grande Mosquée de la Mecque, mais à son réveil, il s’était empressé d’écarter ce rêve qu’il avait pris pour une incitation satanique à la vanité.

Il était alors loin d’imaginer que peu après, en septembre dernier, il allait être informé par téléphone que le Roi Abdullah l’avait choisi comme imam de la Grande Mosquée de la Mecque, du jamais vu dans l’histoire de la religion musulmane et du monde musulman tout entier : le Roi nommait un homme noir à la plus haute distinction à laquelle puisse accéder un imam. Un exploit ! Une première mondiale !

Ainsi, l’imam Adil Kalbani raconte qu’il a été interloqué quand on lui a annoncé que le Roi Abdullah l’avait choisi pour être le premier homme noir à mener des prières à La Mecque. Deux jours plus tard, sa profonde voix de baryton résonnait à travers les minarets de la Grande Mosquée et était transmise par les chaînes de télévision satellitaires aux centaines de millions de Musulmans dans le monde.

L’Islam n’est pas raciste

Les imams qui officient à la Grande Mosquée de La Mecque sont des célébrités en Arabie Saoudite. Le Cheik Adil est donc devenu une personnalité d’envergure internationale surnommé ‘‘Obama saoudien.’’ “Le roi essaie de convaincre le monde qu’il veut gouverner cette terre comme une nation, sans racisme ni aucune ségrégation,” a dit le Cheik Adil, un robuste barbu de 49 ans qui a été l’imam d’une mosquée de Riyadh pendant 20 ans. “N’importe quel individu qualifié, peu importe sa couleur, peu importe son origine, aura une chance d’être un chef, pour son bien et le bien de son pays”, a dit le Cheikh, faisant ainsi un parallèle entre sa nomination et l’élection de Barack Obama.

Le cheik Adil, comme la plupart des Saoudiens, est prompt à déclarer que le racisme n’est pas le fait de l’Islam, qui, dit-il, prêche l’égalitarisme, arguant que Mahomet lui-même avait des compagnons noirs. “Notre histoire islamique a tant de personnes noires réputées,” a dit l’imam, ajoutant que ce n’était pas le cas en Occident.

Pourtant, l’esclavage a été pratiqué en Arabie Saoudite jusqu’en 1962. Les Noirs y sont encore victimes de discrimination raciale. Mais le Cheikh Adil trouve une explication islamique à ce racisme : “Le prophète nous a dit que les classes sociales demeureront à cause de la nature humaine, celles-ci font partie des pratiques préislamiques qui persistent.”

Un Cendrillon musulman

Le père de Cheikh Adil était venu en Arabie Saoudite au cours des années 1950 et avait obtenu un emploi modeste dans un bureau du gouvernement. La famille avait peu d’argent et après ses études, Adil a été employé par les Compagnies aériennes saoudiennes, tout en assistant aux cours du soir à l’Université du Roi Saoud.

Ce n’est que plus tard qu’il a étudié la religion : laborieuse mémorisation du Coran et étude de la jurisprudence islamique. En 1984, il a réussi l’examen du gouvernement pour devenir imam et a travaillé brièvement à la mosquée de l’aéroport de Riyadh. Quatre ans plus tard, il a gagné une place plus importante à la mosquée King Khalid.

Marié à deux femmes et père de douze enfants, il a mené la vie routinière de la plupart des imams, dirigeant la prière cinq fois par jour à la mosquée et, donnant un sermon chaque vendredi. Il s’attendait à ce que les choses continuent ainsi pour le reste de sa vie. Jusqu’au jour où il reçu le fameux coup de téléphone lui annonçant que le roi l’avait choisi. Deux jours plus tard, il était accueilli par des princes à une grande réception où on l’a fait asseoir à la table du roi Abdullah en compagnie des ministres. Il avoue n’avoir pas osé, ce jour-là, adresser la parole au souverain, mais au moment de quitter la salle, il a remercié le roi et l’a embrassé sur le nez, en gage traditionnel de déférence.

Envoyer par mail Vu: 673Commentaires (5)
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Par biba , 17 avril, 2009

Seul le travail anoblit l'homme ,il a sans doute mérité ce poste.
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Par khalil , 18 avril, 2009

Machalah, un imam qui boulverse avec sa voix, belle lecture, il merite.
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Cette adresse email est protégée contre les robots des spammeurs, vous devez activer Javascript pour la voir. , 11 juillet, 2009
Saiigain Comment :
Il a merité peut etre son poste cet imam illustre, mais les idées qu'il avance sur l'inegalitarisme et le racisme apparent ou réel en arabie, terre d'Islam, sont sujettes à caution.L'imam ne semble pas mesurer ses propos à juste titre quand il essaie de façon indirecte d'apporter un semblant d'argument religieux pour expliciter le phenomène de la segregation et du racisme en arabie avec pour illustration un soi disant hadith prophétique que le prohète aurait avancé.Aussi, il demeure imperatif d'eviter un double discours à ce sujet et de dire ce qui est.Nulle part dans la religion islamique et selon les preceptes generalement admis et de bon sens, l'Islam justifie le racisme ou la ségrégation.Quant auc hadith, bien d'entre eux sont des compilations et bien ont été revus ou rejetés en raison de leur faiblesse(d'autorité serieuse).Evitons donc la dichotomie dans la foi.Ne point confondre l'idéologie(arabisme, panarabisme, des aspects des pratiques antéislamiques incorporés en islam sous les auspices de certains docteurs de la loi) et les preceptes universels inspirés du saint coran et des traditions humanistes du prophète; Assalam aleikoim; www.saiigain.wordpress.com
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Par Qqun , 15 juillet, 2009

Sans doute ,l'arabie saoudite est la plus raciste pays dans le monde arabe et islamique

Ils pratique une discimination non pas envers origine africains seulement ,mais aussi envers les autres musulmans du magreb ou egypts sudan ....
Les pensé preislamique ne sont plus des excuse pour cet pratique Raciste

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Par Qqun , 15 juillet, 2009

KSA reste un pays du tiers monde malgré les revenus du Petrole .

Le Vaudou:Limites d'une exposition ethnographique

2009-08-01T05:06:00.000-07:00

Le Vaudou : les limites d'une exposition ethnographique

Source: extrait de texte du blog de Blaise Galland.

http://blaise-galland.over-blog.com/article-22150279-6.html#anchorComment

Samedi dernier, les membres de l'Association Genevoise pour l'Ethnopsychiatrie (AGE) avait rendez-vous au musée d'ethnographie pour visiter l'exposition intitulée "Le vaudou, un art de vivre".

J'avais des doutes sur ce qu'on peut montrer et transmettre dans un musée de ce genre à ce sujet. Peut-on mettre le vaudou dans un musée... ? Ou posons la question autrement: l'ethnographie peut-elle organiser une exposition dans un musée intitulée "Le catholicisme, un art de vivre" et ainsi attirer les foules?
Si cette proposition vous semble incongrue, celle de Robert Hainard me l'a semblé aussi. Je suis content quand même d'y être allé, ne serait-ce que pour y confirmer mes craintes...

Bien sûr, les objets sont "beaux" à nos yeux d'occidentaux avides d'étrange et d'exotisme, bien sûr nous avons là une collection d'objet "dignes d'être mis dans un musée", etc. Mais je me demande encore aujourd'hui quelle est la finalité d'une ethnologie qui ne montre que l'étrangeté et l'incompréhensibilité alors que je pourrais être séduit par une ethnologie qui tendrait à objectiver ces phénomènes "mystérieux" pour autant qu'on puisse les objectiver dans le pesant silence d'un musée.
En attendant, exhiber ces objets sacré, dont seuls les initiés en détiennent la compréhension, rappelle cruellement les dérivent de l'ethnologie du XIXème siècle. On est encore et toujours ainsi dans le folklore, dans le renforcement du mythe que l'on a créé avec notre regard d'occidental. La mystification ne nous fait pas avancer dans notre compréhension du monde.

Heureusement, nous avions un guide haïtien - initié au vaudou - pour nous guider et faire parler un peu ces objets. Mais je me demande, si il avait participé à la programmation de l'exposition, comment elle aurait été différente, je me demande même si elle aurait eu lieu.

Le vaudou, comme les autres traditions de certaines ethnies africaine en déportation dans les Amériques esclavagistes (Candomblé et Umbanda brésiliens, candombé uruguayen, etc.) n'est pas compréhensible à travers les objets qu'on lui vole. Tous ces objets ne sont la manifestation totalement périphérique d'un sens bien plus profond.

Un sens qui ne se comprends pas en lisant des textes, en regardant des objets dans des vitrines, ni même à travers des entretiens ethnologique avec des initiés.
Ici, le sens ne peut se comprendre qu'à travers la musique et la danse. Choses que bien sûr on ne fait pas dans un musée sérieux.

(Je suis le seul responsable de ces propos qui n'engagent que moi)

Avec mes remerciements au musée d'ethnographie de Genève
pour ces images volées

Ces extraits de musique sont disponibles sur ce site: http://www.juno.co.uk/products/172591-01.htm

Par Blaise-Emmanuel - Publié dans : Pensées libres - Communauté : Le coin des sociologues

Ecrire un commentaire 3 - Voir le commentaire - Voir les 3 commentaires Précédent :

Promenade dans la bise du 5 mars 2008 Retour à l'accueil Suivant : Mourir de rire avec Vincent Aubert... Commentaires
c'est effectivement un sujet très intéressant.J'aurais visité l'exposition volontiers...c'est tellement mysterieu tout ça...
Commentaire n° 1 posté par lory le 09/09/2008 à 12h16
ça aurait été encore plus mystérieux après la visite ! (c'était le sens de mon article...)
Réponse de Blaise-Emmanuel le 09/09/2008 à 12h54
ça aurait été encore plus mystérieux après la visite ! (c'était le sens de mon article...)

Commentaire n° 2 posté par Blaise le 09/09/2008 à 12h54

Bonjour,

votre blog semble vraiment interessant.J'interviens sur ce sujet pour vous dire que je partage un certain point de vue dégagé.Il est raisonnable de dire que certaines pratiques de source africaine comme le vaudoo doivent faire l'objet d'etudes et d'appreciations approfondies de la part de fins sociologues en lieu et place d'exotisme ambiant.Pour ma part, il me semble que le symbolisme ainsi que le symbol incarnés par ces pratiques et la logique derriere certaines de ces pratiques que nous semblons negliger avec notre vision rationaliste et materialiste du monde doivent etre les grands enjeux des sociologues modernes car il y aurait bien un certain symbolisme voire une logique que la raison a elle seule pourrait peut etre avoir du mal apprehender d ou le phenomene d initiation et de ritualisation qui depassent l'objectivité du savoir scientifique;

Commentaire n° 3 posté par saiigain le 07/06/2009 à 03h55
.... justement!
Réponse de Blaise Emmanuel il y a 3 jours à 11h11

"Hip Hop Is Dead " Nas( the Icon of modern Rap)

2007-06-26T10:34:00.000-07:00

There is no better way to give an account of the state of hip hop nowadays. The residual presence of this prestigious art of living, of expressing one’s identity, of expressing one’s feelings through music and dance is undergoing a tremendous downfall.For those who do not know, Hip Hop has always been seen as the bedrock of black folks ways of expressing their identity and philosophy.Saying that Hip Hop is dead has a tremendous impact. The spiritual Fathers of Hip Hop like James Brown would not have believed if they had been told what their inheritors might have done with their priceless heritage to their descent-black folks. Whether or not Hip Hop is dead does not really matter, what matters is what remained out of hip hop nowadays. Just like Hip Hop is likely to meet its demise in this new era, it is likely that rap, reggae, roots, and so on will also undergo drastic changes in the upcoming years. There is really a general upsurge upon the vitality of artists who performed such kinds of music: The reform of the message. Indeed, a reform is being carried out by many artists so as to convey a suitable message to future generations. It is now proposed to direct the conscious of young people at self-responsibility and self-morality. Such a reform has already been implemented -in some ways-concerning the apparent consensus of banning “dirty expressions or words” from the vocabulary of the new generation of R’N”B, Rap, Hip Hop singers . Today, the black entertainment industries agree upon the prohibition of using the “F’ or “B” or any words which may debase people’s characters or identity. This is a victory of the world of music, a victory of the maturity of black leadership in the United States of America. The new generation of US citizens deserves better education especially black young men. Since young folks are the main consumers of such music, they are the first to seize up the message delivered by the artists, and they are the first to be influenced by the message which is conveyed unto them. If there is an effort to forbid the use of “f” words or others, it is advisory to forbid the use of the word “snitches” which is being widespread in big cities. Such a word as ‘snitch” restricts people from being a good American citizen, from getting involved in the well-being of the community, from collaborating with the law officers regarding homicide or killings. We should therefore forbid such words as well; we should even punish those who may make use of such a word publicly. Nowadays, a great many people think that it is grand time for Rap or Hip Hop singers to move forward. This dynamic move towards something bigger than before, considering the human rights, is really a breakthrough in the twenty-first century for the entire world of music made in US.
As the slogan goes “ A New Century, A New Style , A New Black-Manhood” , something is happening in the world of black entertainment. What is at stake is the revival of a new concept of black music, a new concept of black identity, and a new concept of black supremacy.
The so-called concepts of “Black is beautiful” or “Hip-Hop” seem to be dead. From their death, from their ashes, a new concept of Black hood is being dawned.

What Non-Muslim used to say about Islam?

2007-06-10T14:40:00.001-07:00

It is usually common to hear Islam from the viewpoint of Muslim alone; It is hardly commonplace to hear it from the point of view of Non-Muslims. In this series of quotations, I would like all my readers to ponder over the sincere meanings of the message delivered by the following religious leaders, state leaders, influential writers, intellectual personalities, historians, scientists, and so on. The essential message which underlies their thought is to call Mankind to be humble and tolerant towards the religious beliefs. If some people did not find the release they seek for during their own religious search for Truth in a particular belief, other people might already have found it in the Islamic faith Therefore, it remains as our duty to respect their faith and their choice.

At the age of 70 Goethe writes (Notes and Essays to the Divan, WA I, 17, 153) that he intends "to celebrate respectfully that night when the Prophet was given the Koran completely from above" He also wrote: "No one may wonder about the great efficiency of the Book. That is why it has been declared as uncreated by real admirers" and added to it: "This book will eternally remain highly efficacious/effective" (WA I, 7, 35/36)

Goethe says:

"Whether the Koran is of eternity?
I don't question that!...
That it is the book of books
I believe out of the muslim's duty."

In another poem of the "Divan" Goethe says:
If Islam means submission to God,
We all live and die in Islam."

When in 1831 the cholera appeared and killed many people he consoled a friend: "Here no one can counsil the other; each one has to decide on his own. We all live in Islam, whatever form we choose to encourage ourselves." (Letter to Adele Schopenhauer, 19.9.1831, WA IV, 49, 87)

In December 1820 Goethe wrote thanks for the gift of a book of aphorisms of his friend Willemer and says: "It fits ... with every religious-reasonable view and is an Islam to which we all have to confess sooner or later." (WA IV, 34, 50)

"That philosophical system of the mohammedan people is an excellent measure which one can apply spirit because it indicates for man the unity within his own self." (Noten und Abhandlungen zum West-stlichen Divan, chapter Mahmud von Gasna, WA I, 7, 42) Goethe tells about the difference between a prophet and a poet and the confirmation of Muhammad - may Allah bless him and give him peace! - as a prophet: "He is a prophet and not a poet and therefore his Koran is to be seen as a divine law and not as a book of a human being, made for education or entertainment." (Noten und Abhandlungen zum West-stlichen Divan, WA I, 7, 32)

Goethe said :

"Jesus felt pure and calmly thought
Only the One God;
Who made himself to be a god
Offends his holy will.
And thus the right(ness) has to shine
What Mahomet also achieved;
Only by the term of the One
He mastered the whole world"

Maurice Bucaille:

This observation is of prime importance, since in the West, Jews, Christians and atheists are unanimous in stating (without a scrap of evidence however) that Muhammad (peace be upon him) wrote the Qur'an or had it written as an imitation of the Bible. It is claimed that stories of religious history in the Qur'an resume Biblical stories. This attitude is as thoughtless as saying that Jesus Himself duped His contemporaries by drawing inspiration from the Old Testament during His preaching: the whole of Matthew's Gospel is based on this continuation of the Old Testament, as we have indeed seen already.

The best reply to the misconception that Islam was spread by the sword is given by the noted historian De Lacy O’Leary in the book “Islam at the cross roads” (Page 8):

“History makes it clear, however, that the legend of fanatical Muslims sweeping through the world and forcing Islam at the point of the sword upon conquered races is one of the most fantastically absurd myths that historians have ever repeated.”

The famous historian, Thomas Carlyle, in his book “Heroes and Hero worship”, refers to this misconception about the spread of Islam: “The sword indeed, but where will you get your sword? Every new opinion, at its starting is precisely in a minority of one. In one man’s head alone. There it dwells as yet. One man alone of the whole world believes it, there is one man against all men. That he takes a sword and tries to propagate with that, will do little for him. You must get your sword! On the whole, a thing will propagate itself as it can.”

David Emile Durkleim says " Muhammed is one of the prophets of the biblical line "

Dr. Joseph Adam Pearson rightly says, “People who worry that nuclear weaponry will one day fall in the hands of the Arabs, fail to realize that the Islamic bomb has been dropped already, it fell the day MUHAMMAD was born”.

Lamartine's tribute to the Prophet:

Lamartine, the celebrated historian says: "If greatness of purpose, smallness of means and astounding results are the three criteria of human genius, who could dare to compare any great man in modern history with Muhammad? The most famous men created arms, laws and empires only. They founded, if anything at all, no more than material powers which often crumbled away before their eyes.

"This man moved not only armies, legislations, empires, peoples and dynasties, but millions of men in one-third of the then inhabited world; and more than that, he moved the altars, the gods, the religions, the ideas, the beliefs and souls... his forbearance in victory, his ambition, which was entirely devoted to one idea and in no manner striving for an empire; his endless prayers, his mystic conversations with God, his death and his triumph over death; all these attest not to an imposture but to a firm conviction which gave him the power to restore a dogma.

"This dogma was twofold, the unity of God and the immateriality of God; the former telling what God is, the latter telling what God is not; the one overthrowing false gods with the sword, the other starting an idea with the words.

"Philosopher, orator, apostle, legislator, warrior, conqueror of ideas, restorer of rational dogmas, of a cult without images, the founder of twenty terrestrial empires and of one spiritual empire, that is Muhammad. As regards all the standards by which human greatness may be measured, we may ask, is there any man greater than he?" (Lamartine, Histoire de la Turquie, Paris, 1854, Vol. II, pp. 276-277)

"If greatness of purpose, smallness of means and astounding results are the three criteria of human genius, who could claim to compare any great man in modern history with Muhammad?"
(Histoire de la Turquie,

Gandhi:

"I become more than ever convinced that it was not the sword that won a place for Islam in those days. It was the rigid simplicity, the utter self-effacement of the Prophet, the scrupulous regard for pledges, his intense devotion to his friends and followers and his intrepidity, his fearlessness, his absolute trust in God and in his own mission. These and not the sword carried everything before them and surmounted every obstacle”.
(Young India, 1922).
1855).

George Bernard Shaw:
"I believe that if a man like him were to assume the dictatorship of the modern world, he would succeed in solving the problems in a way that would bring the much needed peace and happiness. Europe is beginning to be enamored of the creed of Muhammad. In the next century it may go further in recognizing the utility of that creed in solving its problems."
(A Collection of writing of some of the eminent scholars, 1935).

Bill Clinton:
"So I ask you again to rededicate yourselves in this coming year to
making sure that others in this country truly understand and appreciate the faith you embrace, its practices, its beliefs, its precepts and its inclusive humanity... The Koran also teaches, in addition, to the fact that we should do unto others as we wish to have done to us, and reject for others what we would reject for ourselves, but we should also make a commitment to live in peace…"

Tony Blair: Qur'an Inspired Me
"If you read the Koran, it is so clear… the concept of love and fellowship as the guiding spirits of humanity"

The essential and definite element of my conversion to Islam was the Qur'an. I began to study it before my conversion with the critical spirit of a Western intellectual... There are certain verses of this book, the Qur'an, revealed more than thirteen centuries ago, which teach exactly the same notions as the most modern scientific researches do. This definitely converted me.288 (Ali Selman Benoist, France, Doctor of Medicine)

Everything made so much sense. This is the beauty of the Qur'an; it asks you to reflect and reason... When I read the Qur'an further, it talked about prayer, kindness and charity. I was not a Muslim yet, but I felt the only answer for me was the Qur'an and Allah had sent it to me.286 (Yusuf Islam [Cat Stevens], former British pop star)

I am not a Muslim in the usual sense, though I hope I am a "Muslim" as "one surrendered to God," but I believe that embedded in the Quran and other expressions of the Islamic vision are vast stores of divine truth from which I and other occidentals have still much to learn, and "Islam is certainly a strong contender for the supplying of the basic framework of the one religion of the future."287 (From the book Islam and Christianity Today)

Napolean Bonaparte as Quoted in Cherfils, ‘Bonaparte et Islam,’ Paris, France, pp. 105, 125.

"Moses has revealed the existence of God to his nation. Jesus Christ to the Roman world, Muhammad to the old continent...
"Arabia was idolatrous when, six centuries after Jesus, Muhammad introduced the worship of the God of Abraham, of Ishmael, of Moses, and Jesus. The Ariyans and some other sects had disturbed the tranquility of the east by agitating the question of the nature of the Father, the son, and the Holy Ghost. Muhammad declared that there was none but one God who had no father, no son and that the trinity imported the idea of idolatry...

"I hope the time is not far off when I shall be able to unite all the wise and educated men of all the countries and establish a uniform regime based on the principles of Qur'an which alone are true and which alone can lead men to happiness."

The strength of the Koran is that a Muslim, or anyone, can open it to any page and get a message dealing with life's meaning.290 (The well-known theologian John Esposito).

I have read the Sacred Scriptures of every religion; nowhere have I found what I encountered in Islam: perfection. The Holy Qur'an, compared to any other scripture I have read, is like the Sun compared to that of a match. I firmly believe that anybody who reads the Word of Allah with a mind that is not completely closed to Truth, will become a Muslim.289 (Saifuddin Dirk Walter Mosig)

Bertrand Russel in ‘History of Western Philosophy,’ London, 1948, p. 419.

"Our use of phrase 'The Dark ages' to cover the period from 699 to 1,000 marks our undue concentration on Western Europe...
"From India to Spain, the brilliant civilization of Islam flourished. What was lost to christendom at this time was not lost to civilization, but quite the contrary...

"To us it seems that West-European civilization is civilization, but this is a narrow view."

H.G. Wells

"The Islamic teachings have left great traditions for equitable and gentle dealings and behavior, and inspire people with nobility and tolerance. These are human teachings of the highest order and at the same time practicable. These teachings brought into existence a society in which hard-heartedness and collective oppression and injustice were the least as compared with all other societies preceding it....Islam is replete with gentleness, courtesy, and fraternity."

Dr. William Draper in 'History of Intellectual Development of Europe'

"During the period of the Caliphs the learned men of the Christians and the Jews were not only held in great esteem but were appointed to posts of great responsibility, and were promoted to the high ranking job in the government....He (Caliph Haroon Rasheed) never considered to which country a learned person belonged nor his faith and belief, but only his excellence in the field of learning."

Edward Montet, 'La Propagande Chretienne et ses Adversaries Musulmans,' Paris 1890. (Also in T.W. Arnold in 'The Preaching of Islam,' London 1913.)

"Islam is a religion that is essentially rationalistic in the widest sense of this term considered etymologically and historically....the teachings of the Prophet, the Qur'an has invariably kept its place as the fundamental starting point, and the dogma of unity of God has always been proclaimed therein with a grandeur a majesty, an invariable purity and with a note of sure conviction, which it is hard to find surpassed outside the pale of Islam....A creed so precise, so stripped of all theological complexities and consequently so accessible to the ordinary understanding might be expected to possess and does indeed possess a marvelous power of winning its way into the consciences of men."

Simon Ockley in 'History of the Saracens'.

“A rugged, strife-torn and mountaineering people...were suddenly turned into an indomitable Arab force, which achieved a series of splendid victories unparalleled in the history of nations, for in the short space of ninety years that mighty range of Saracenic conquest embraced a wider extent of territory than Rome had mastered in the course of eight hundred.”

Phillip Hitti in 'Short History of the Arabs.'

"During all the first part of the Middle Ages, no other people made as important a contribution to human progress as did the Arabs, if we take this term to mean all those whose mother-tongue was Arabic, and not merely those living in the Arabian peninsula. For centuries, Arabic was the language of learning, culture and intellectual progress for the whole of the civilized world with the exception of the Far East. From the IXth to the XIIth century there were more philosophical, medical, historical, religiuos, astronomical and geographical works written in Arabic than in any other human tongue."

Carra de Vaux in 'The Philosophers of Islam,' Paris, 1921.

"Finally how can one forget that at the same time the Mogul Empire of India (1526-1857 C.E.) was giving the world the Taj Mahal (completed in 1648 C.E.) the architectural beauty of which has never been surpassed, and the ‘Akbar Nameh’ of Abul Fazl: "That extraordinary work full of life ideas and learning where every aspect of life is examined listed and classified, and where progress continually dazzles the eye, is a document of which Oriental civilization may justly be proud. The men whose genius finds its expression in this book were far in advance of their age in the practical art of government, and they were perhaps in advance of it in their speculations about religious philosophy. Those poets those philosophers knew how to deal with the world or matter. They observe, classify, calculate and experiment. All the ideas that occur to them are tested against facts. They express them with eloquence but they also support them with statistics."...the principles of tolerance, justice and humanity which prevailed during the long reign of Akbar."

Marcel Clerget in 'La Turquie, Passe et Present,' Paris, 1938.

"Many proofs of high cultural level of the Ottoman Empire during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent are to be found in the development of science and law; in the flowering of literary works in Arabic, Persian and Turkish; in the contemporary monuments in Istanbul, Bursa, and Edirne; in the boom in luxury industries; in the sumptuous life of the court and high dignitaries, and last but not least in its religious tolerance. All the various influences - notably Turkish, Byzantine and Italian mingle together and help to make this the most brilliant epoch of the Ottomans."

Thomas Arnold in 'The Call to Islam.'

"We have never heard about any attempt to compel Non-Muslim parties to adopt Islam or about any organized persecution aiming at exterminating Christianity. If the Caliphs had chosen one of these plans, they would have wiped out Christianity as easily as what happened to Islam during the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella in Spain; by the same method which Louis XIV followed to make Protestantism a creed whose followers were to be sentenced to death; or with the same ease of keeping the Jews away from Britain for a period of three hundred fifty years

James Addison in 'The Christian Approach to the Moslem,' p. 35.

"Despite the growth of antagonism, Moslem (Muslim) rulers seldom made their Christian subjects suffer for the Crusades. When the Saracens finally resumed the full control of Palestine the Christians were given their former status as dhimmis. The Coptic Church, too had little cause for complaint under Saladin's (Salahuddin) strong government, and during the time of the earlier Mameluke sultans who succeeded him the Copts experienced more enlightened justice than they had hitherto known. The only effect of the Crusaders upon Egyptian Christians was to keep them for a while from pilgrimage to Jerusalem, for as long as the Frank were in charge heretics were forbidden access to the shrines. Not until the Moslem victories could they enjoy their rights as Christians."

Muhammad Marmaduke Pickthall in his 1927 Lecture on 'Tolerance in Islam,' Madras, India.

"In the eyes of history, religious toleration is the highest evidence of culture in a people....It was not until the Western nations broke away from their religious law that they became more tolerant, and it was only when the Muslims fell away from their religious law that they declined in tolerance and other evidences of the highest culture. Before the coming of Islam it (tolerance) had never been preached as an essential part of religion...
"If Europe had known as much of Islam, as Muslims knew of Christendom, in those days, those mad, adventurous, occasionally chivalrous and heroic, but utterly fanatical outbreak known as the Crusades could not have taken place, for they were based on a complete misapprehension...

"Innumerable monasteries, with a wealth of treasure of which the worth has been calculated at not less than a hundred millions sterling, enjoyed the benefit of the Holy Prophet's (Muhammad’s) Charter to the monks of Sinai and were religiously respected by the Muslims. The various sects of Christians were represented in the Council of the Empire by their patriarchs, on the provincial and district council by their bishops, in the village council by their priests, whose word was always taken without question on things which were the sole concern of their community...

"The tolerance within the body of Islam was, and is, something without parallel in history; class and race and color ceasing altogether to be barriers

Sir John Bagot Glubb

“Khalif (Caliph) Al-Ma'mun's period of rule (813 - 833 C.E.) may be considered the 'golden age' of science and learning. He had always been devoted to books and to learned pursuits. His brilliant mind was interested in every form of intellectual activity. Not only poetry but also philosophy, theology, astronomy, medicine and law all occupied his time.”
“By Mamun's time medical schools were extremely active in Baghdad. The first free public hospital was opened in Baghdad during the Caliphate of Haroon-ar-Rashid. As the system developed, physicians and surgeons were appointed who gave lectures to medical students and issued diplomas to those who were considered qualified to practice. The first hospital in Egypt was opened in 872 AD and thereafter public hospitals sprang up all over the empire from Spain and the Maghrib to Persia.”

On the Holocaust of Baghdad (1258 C.E.) Perpetrated by Hulagu:
“The city was systematically looted, destroyed and burnt. Eight hundred thousand persons are said to have been killed. The Khalif Mustasim was sewn up in a sack and trampled to death under the feet of Mongol horses.

“For five hundred years, Baghdad had been a city of palaces, mosques, libraries and colleges. Its universities and hospitals were the most up-to-date in the world. Nothing now remained but heaps of rubble and a stench of decaying human flesh.”

Captain Cousteau told of the event that had caused him to become a
Muslim, as follows:

"In 1962 German scientists said that the waters of the Red Sea
and the Indian Ocean did not mix with each other in the Strait
of Bab-ul-Mandab where the Aden Bay and the Red Sea join. So we
began to examine whether the waters of the Atlantic Ocean and the
Mediterranean mixed with each other. First we analyzed the water
in the Mediterranean to find out its natural salinity and density,
and the life it contained. We repeated the same procedure in the
Atlantic Ocean. The two masses of water had been meeting each
other in the Gibraltar for thousands of years. Accordingly, the
two masses of water must have been mixing with each other and
they must have been sharing identical, or, at least, similar
properties in salinity and density. On the contrary, even at
places where the two seas were closest to each other, each mass
of water preserved its properties. In other words, at the point
where the two seas met, a curtain of water prevented the waters
belonging to the two seas from mixing. When I told Professor
Maurice Bucaille about this phenomenon, he said that it was no
surprise and that it was written clearly in Islam's Holy Book,
the Qur'an al-karim. Indeed, this fact was defined in a plain
language in the Qur'an al-karim. When I knew this, I believed in
the fact that the Qur'an al-karim was the 'Word of Allah'. I chose
Islam, the true religion. The spiritual potency inherent in the
Islamic religion gave me the strength to endure the pain I had
been suffering for the loss of my son."

George W. Bush:

"It's [the Qur'an is] a very thoughtful gift."

Michael H. Hart of USA, compiled a ranking list of the 100 most influential persons in the history of the entire humanity, who authored book “The 100 most influential persons", published in 1978 by Hart Publishing Company Inc. He ranked Muhammad peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him, as the number one, at the top of his list.
Following are brief excerpts from the chapter on Muhammad peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him.

“My choice of Muhammad to lead the best of the world’s most influential persons may surprise some readers and may be questioned by others, but he was the only man in history who was supremely successful on both the religious and secular levels.

Of humble origins, Muhammad founded and promulgated one of the world’s great religions, and became an immensely effective political leader. Today thirteen centuries after his death, his influence is still powerful and pervasive.
The majority of the persons in this book had the advantage of being born and raised in centers of civilization, highly cultured or politically pivotal nations. Muhammad, however, was born in the year 570, in the city of Mecca, in southern Arabia, at that time a backwards area of the world, far from the centers of trade, art and learning. Orphaned at the age of six, he was reared in modest surroundings. Islamic tradition tells us that he was illiterate.”

“When Muhammad died, in 632, he was the effective ruler of all of Southern Arabia”.

About the rapid spread of Islaam which continued after the demise of Muhammad, Michael Hart writes that the lands that accepted Islaam included ”The Northeast of Arabia the larger Neo-Persian Empire of Sassamids; to the northwest bay Byzantine, or Eastern Roman Empire, centered in Constantinople . . . all of Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine.”

“By 711, North Africa, to the Atlantic Ocean, then the Visigoth Kingdom of Spain . . . stretching from the boarders of India to the Atlantic Ocean, the largest empire that the world had yet seen”.

Islam and Modernity:

2007-06-02T10:47:00.002-07:00

The purpose of this writing is to call Muslims to criticism and to self-criticism.Above all, it seeks to make Muslims be aware of the "perpetual" Arab ideology within' the traditional interpretations of the Koran and of the Islamic traditions (prophet's sayings). Nobody is so blind to fail to see that Islam has been manipulated in favor of the Arabic ideologies and imperialism throughout History:

The Koran has always been used as a vehicle for exporting Arab
imperialism; conquered countries becoming vassal states of the caliphate.
Arab methods may have softened some over time, but their goals remain
the same: world conquest for Islam with an Arabian flavor. Egypt is a
case in point. Egypt today is more Arabian than Egyptian. In His book,
Black Gold and Holy War, PP. 8-9, Ishak Ibrahim, an Egyptian national,
paints a rather bleak picture of how the Arabs invaded his country and
then permeated Egypt with their culture:
These latter invaders (the Arabs) not only occupied Egypt like
the previous powers but through their cultural imperialism
permeated every area of Egyptian life, becoming within a few
years an integral part of it. The change they wrought was
permanent. Egypts original heritage was never to be seen again
except dimly in the lives of a small minority of Coptic Christians
who refused total submission to the Arab en slavers. The high
cost of refusal often meant their own death. Through manipulation,
blackmail and outright obliteration of resistance, Islam
became the religion of the majority in Egypt. Few people were
asked to pay the high taxes (Jizya) the Arabs imposed, so their
only alternative (if they wanted to live) was to accept Islam, to
become part of the faithful. Those too poor to pay taxes, yet
unwilling to convert to Islam, were martyred" (M. Ali,Islam Reviewed,1999)

Besides Koran, Islam is embedded in its so-called Islamic traditions. Muslims should behave according to God’s commands in the Koran and according to the traditions of the Prophet. Therefore, any Muslim who is susceptible to put aside the Koran injunctions and the Prophet’s recommendations is liable to be treated as heretic. There was a great deal of heresies in Islam throughout History; however, such an heresy is equated with apostasy which, in Islamic terms, supposes the possibility of being killed according to the Islamic code called “the sharia”, but also in accordance with some so-called Islamic traditions. Notwithstanding, despite following Islamic teachings, Islam itself does not forbid Muslims to seek knowledge wherever they may find it given that the nature of this knowledge must not call the Islamic Faith into question. The purpose which underlies the search for science and technology should be aimed at causing life to be much better, much comfortable, and much more enjoyable. So, the objective behind looking for such knowledge is to better one’s standard of living, one’s well-being and one’s own life. As a matter of fact, Islam can only encourage the search for knowledge no matter the nature of such knowledge. This is the viewpoint of traditional scholarship which claims to comply with the “authentic” traditions of Islam and the teachings of the Koran. Whether traditional or modern scholars, both sides agree upon the fact that the first priority for any Muslim is to seek knowledge c-a-d spiritual knowledge relative to his Islamic faith. Afterwards, he is free to get involved in seeking other sources of knowledge such as secular ones like medicine, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and so on. Philosophy is also a well-advised knowledge to seek for it helps open one’s mind, helps criticizing, and helps discovering some deeper truths about Nature, God, Man, Sciences, Technologies, and so on. Logically, we can see that Islam does lay the basis for human progress. However, when it comes to realize that the reality conveyed by a good deal of discoveries that Islam has ever stimulated is out of any expectancy, then it raises controversies. In other words, while it(Islam) is being managed to promote knowledge of sciences especially secular sciences, it is also being threatened by its own enthusiasm towards promoting such know ledges. Indeed, Progress in science and technology reaches such an extent that no Muslims is likely to challenge their evidences about the scientific revelations concerning nature, human beings, wild animals, or even God that they compel us to review some of the notions or perceptions we were previously holding about the teachings of Islamic traditions and the interpretations of the Koran regarding certain matters such as astronomy, biology, geology, physics, and so on. The manifest lack of knowledge during earlier evolution of Islam could not help give a correct rendition of the verses of the Koran. As a result, many verses had been misinterpreted or misconstrued by Arab commentators as well as western scholars. Those misinterpretations were also reflected by a lack of knowledge of the true nature of Islam; they were due to an insufficient progress in sciences and technologies during earlier periods of history. Nowadays, we have the means of giving an entire satisfactory interpretation of the holy Koran without even referring to Islamic Traditions. What dismay non-Arabs especially non-Muslims is the controversy over the meaning of some words within’ the Koran when it is believed that the Koran was revealed in Arabic and there should not be better translators than Arabs themselves. Unfortunately, that is not the case all the times. A good deal of incorrect interpretations came from going along with the flawed interpretation of Koran teachings and the so-called sayings of the Prophet. Notwithstanding, there were some misunderstand able verses that could not be grasped without giving a plausible context in which these might have been revealed. Otherwise, it is impossible to comprehend their meanings. This point is perfectly correct owing to the fact that Islam evolved in an historic framework- We can not dissociate it with its historic context. Now, taking up to the point, even if the Koran is undoubtedly of divine origin, human beings are not always reliable sources. We can not be contented with a so-called Islamic tradition to give us a full account of the meanings of the verses. Otherwise, we should not always rely upon traditional viewpoints to try to interpret the verses. It is even better to avoid them as much as possible given that those viewpoints were being made by some people who lacked in real knowledge concerning different aspects of human life, of sciences, of spirituality and so son. The most, if not only, reliable source of knowledge and guidance is the Koran. Therefore, whoever wants to know what is Islam should refer to the best interpretations of the Koran .This Koran is said to be remained the same endlessly. It claims to be for all times; it claims to challenge any human viewpoints against its revealing truths. Undeniably, it is us whose viewpoints are flawed, not God’s words. This same God is ready to defend His words as long as we are willing to serve His causes. How can we know His causes if we cannot even correctly render the meanings of His words? No matter the scale of progress, no matter the nature of progress in science and technology, the holy book of Muslims has always challenged the human evidences against its divine origin and its all-powerful Author. It is not the case that we are making an apology of the Koran, but our point remains that the Koran will survive over human challenges no matter the time and the space. However, our tradition is likely to perish. We are even witness of its beginning and progressive demise .I hope we are wrong, if not, then the upcoming Islam will have to get rid of some essential practices of the so-called Islamic traditions wittingly or unwittingly unless God does not want it that way. In short, we should not fear progress; it is in the natural course of things. On the contrary, we should welcome such a human-made progress without which we are likely to meet our own demise. It is such a progress that leads us today to the reality that we live in. Now, we live in the world of technology and sciences and information. Therefore, any Muslim should take advantage of such a progress without going beyond the divine injunctions. Either we like it or not, we are being modernized; we are being transformed by our own perceptions of seeing things especially tradition-related things. This is what one may call “Modern Lifestyle”. It is not necessarily the lifestyle of western people, it should rather be our own freewill of choosing the convenient modern lifestyle that is suitable to us and that is susceptible to face the future challenges that are going ahead. Modern Islam should not comply with all values of the West. We should define our own way of seeing what it means to be a Modern Man. Our next generation of Muslims will depend upon the legacy that we are being left for them. It is our duty to comply with the new reality we are facing, and it is our duty to appeal Muslims to adhere to some realism, at least, to some realistic interpretations of the Koran and the Islamic traditions. God is here for everybody; Neither Muslims nor non-Muslims are His chosen people on this earth. However, there is no way that such a thing could be in the Hereafter. It has to be a difference, and it has to be a just retribution for sincere deeds performed for God’s sake and pleasure.
The reason for our flawed visions of adopting radical move towards Islamic modernism lies in the so-called Arabism. Arabism is the set of values that are inherent to Arab society. What is meant is that some traditions, Arab traditions have been incorporated in Islamic teachings. These things have nothing to do with the true teachings of the Koran. They are only relative to the Arabs, to their society, and the post-prophet hood society. There are no absolute evidences susceptible to confirm or deny that the Prophet would comply with practices that are purely Arabic. The only most probable sources come from Islamic traditions which consist of so much inconsistencies and contradictions. Those traditions have been compiled only around two centuries after the death of the Prophet. It is hard to give any absolute credibility to their claim even if there are some plausibility which they provide. Even if the Prophet may have been interfering with his society, the message of Islam is for anyone, for any place, for any time. It is a universal and timeless message for humankind. Therefore, it should not restrict itself in Arab ideology. Indeed, many traditions and earlier interpretations are replete with ideologies among them Arab ideologies. It is grand time to deal with such ideologies. We are not blind to the extent to refuse to recognize this obviousness. We take this opportunity to criticize and remind Western scholars that there is no such a thing as plural Islam (African, Asian, European, American Islam). It is a misconception raised up by a malicious addition of non-Islamic practices within’ Islam. The first people to blame are the Arabs who wittingly added ideological notions in Islam. We have then to blame so-called specialists of Islam for blindly following the studies of earlier Islamic scholars in their attempt to rationalize things which are not islamically rationizable. We have to blame for the obvious biases that spread in Western World concerning Islam and its universal teachings. After all, it is not the fault of such western scholars since they have most of time based their judgment and analysis on the flawed reports and studies of earlier Arab scholars. What such scholars did in terms of crimes is difficult to imagine or to bear. Because of them, young Muslims are literally in doubt about their own faith. Never has Islam witnessed such a low-confidence and insufficient enthusiasm in promoting the true teachings of Islam. Something needs to be changed so as the next generation of Muslims may be able to fit their own society and the modern society that is guided by the enlightening teachings of the Koran. We got to interpret the universal truths of the Koran by divorcing its contextual and historic circumstances from the true and essential and eternal messages that it conveys unto Mankind. It is an uneasy task to deal with, but it is a duty of every sincere Muslim to aid of accomplishing such a mission. It is the only mission to do for our generation no matter the race, the ethnicity, the culture. That is because we all can contribute to building the framework of the true Islam that can fit the expectations of God and our own expectations. We are all culturally different. Diversity must not be a burden, but it must be richness and enrichment. An African is not an Arab, an Arab is not an European, An “Asian” is not an African,and An European is not an African in some extent. Everyone is capable to provide a new perspective so as to see things quite differently. So, dear Brothers and Sisters, get ready for the next spiritual and intellectual and humanistic "Jihad ": The Revival of Islam in modern Age

2007-05-31T20:42:00.000-07:00

A MODERN INTERPRETATION OF THE MEANING OF the first verse of SURAT 94

Surat 94 is one of the 114 surats in the Koran. It was reported to have been revealed to the Prophet while he was in Mekkah. This account is said to be attested by a careful analysis of the context in which the Surat was indeed inspired to the Prophet, but also by the attentive study of the islamic traditions which are called “hadiths” . It is common to refer to the Prophetic traditions as “Sunnas” as well. The period of revelation is not specifically called up into question here, but the plausible meaning that some islamic scholars, so far, tried to put forward .In other words, what is meant is the diverse interpretations that have been made until now to try to grasp the meaning of its different verses. The traditional explanation based upon the islamic traditions and underpinned by certain verses of the Holy Koran which are viewed as giving a full account of the meaning of its verses seem unsatisfactory especially regarding the first verse of the same surat .As far as this first verse is concerned, its interpretation by muslim scholars is especially based upon what we may call “self-satisfactory” statements or explanations found in several verses apportioned in its different surats(chapters of the Koran). The purpose of this analysis is on one hand to provide the traditional interpretations put forward by some well-known Islamic scholars such as Ibn Kathir, who devoted themselves in the priceless task to inspire us what they believed should most likely be the meaning of the verses without ignoring the fact that the absolute meaning must belong to God Himself. Our intention is not to question the meaning of some verses such scholars have profoundly reflected on, but our intention is to propose an interpretation which sustains a certain point of view of such a scholar as Ibn Kathir as well as others. As stated earlier, this short analysis begins by précising the traditional interpretation of the verse (1), the context surrounding its revelations, the purpose of such an interpretation on one hand. On the other hand, our analysis seeks to provide an entire perception, in completion of what was traditionally reported, a perception which may challenge some viewpoints that we are being held on the traditions; this analysis also seeks to show the amazing compatibility between the experience of the Prophet and the essential condition that led to the birth of the philosophy of Cartesianism whose “spiritual Father” remains Descartes Rene in our modern times.

Before going further, it is interesting to clarify some points. As for those who may accuse the writer of this work of being a non-Muslim, we will instantly react by saying that he is fully Muslim in the strict Islamic terms; the author is born as Muslim in a well-educated Islamic family whose Islamic faith has never been put into doubt. Meanwhile, he believes in the Holy Koran as a Divine Revelation inspired to the Prophet Mohammed during his lifetime. He is seen among other Muslim communities of his entourage as a person who is in love with his Islamic faith and who is engaged in promoting the true meaning of Islam for non-Muslims during this era of globalization and cultural encounters. Likewise, he has been interested in studying Islam since he was a child.
He used to be taught by adepts at Islam. He learnt Arabic’s early. By the time he learned it, he was also studying Islamic and non-Islamic Scriptures authored by islamic scholars as well as non-Islamic experts. He adheres to the fundamental and humanistic principles of Islamic teachings whose values are recognized by all sincere individuals no matter their race, their ethnicity, their social position, their ideology, religion, and so on. His point of view may be arguable, but it reflects the sincere feelings and thoughts of a Muslim trying to honor his faith and his God in front of the World especially when the credibility of his faith is allegedly being challenged within’ a scientific-oriented World which seems to expect miracles from Sciences and Technology nowadays.

It is hard to know where to begin this analysis all the more so as Islam of our days and Islam of the early seventh century obviously underwent changes. Those changes are pertaining to the political, social, religious circumstances appeared during its (Islam) historic evolution which reached the peak during the Middle Ages period of what is referred to as “Islamic Renaissance”. It may take several books to deal with such an evolution, but since we deal with a short-liked analysis, we would circumscribe ourselves to some specific periods surrounding the period of the revelations of surat 94 which contains a verse whose meaning, correct meaning may be the true essence of the veracity of the prophethood of Ahmed (Peace and Blessing of God upon him). Undoubtedly, if we come to give the most truthful meaning of this verse, it may change the perception non-Muslims may have ever had upon Islam and the final Prophet from the seeds of Abraham. So far, a few scholars have tried to give a short account of the meaning of this verse which is incredibly the condition which must have conferred to him the title of Prophet hood in our way of seeing things besides his legendary sincerity, reliability which were reported by his contemporary people and their followers. What is this so-called verse one of the surat 94?
The following translation is from the English translation of the Arabic Book of Tafseer by Imam Ibn Kathir,( May God be pleased with him):

www.islambasics.com
The Tafsir of Surah Alam Nashrah (Surat Ash-Sharh)
(Chapter - 94)
Which was revealed in Makkah

In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.

(1. Have We not opened your breast for you) (2. And removed from you
your burden.) (3. Which weighed down your back) (4. And have We not
raised high your fame) (5. Verily, along with every hardship is relief,) (6.
Verily, along with every hardship is relief.) (7. So when you have finished,
devote yourself to Allah's worship.) (8. And to your Lord Turn intentions and
Hopes.)
The Meaning of opening the Breast
Allah says,

(Have we not opened your breast for you)
Meaning, `have We not opened your chest for you.' This means, `We illuminated it, and
We made it spacious, vast and wide.'
This is as Allah says,
(And whomsoever Allah wills to guide, He opens his breast to Islam.) (6:125)
And just as Allah expanded his chest, He also made His Law vast, wide, accommodating
and easy, containing no difficulty, hardship or burden.
What we are only concerned with is the first verse of this surat and its interpretation according to Ibn Kathir and those whom he followed and those who followed (May God be pleased with them).
What can we say about this judicious interpretation?
First of all, the author did not give any account of what the Islamic traditions might have said about the meaning. Maybe, the author supposes that such an account may have been understood by the different prerogatives which are pertaining to him ( His chosen school of thoughts, or his position about the subject, or the position of his masters, etc..) . Is there something to do with those who translate the Book from Arabic to English? If not, Is there any indication here to let believers the opportunity to judge by themselves what might be a plausible meaning of this verse in accordance with the Islamic traditions and the consensus made by the Ummah (Islamic community)? Why is there any satisfactory opinion from Ibn Kathir himself? Obviously, the attempt made here by the author is really not to give his position about the "real" meaning of this verse?(The contextual meaning out of the koranic explanations clearly seems absent). In contrast to this specific verse(1), the author did refer to some islamic traditions to try to give an account of the meanings of others verses? If the author has not given a satisfactory interpretation of his own, what did he do so?
Here, the author as well as many scholars is trying to keep himself behind the opinion of the islamic community of scholars who seemed to be agreed upon a certain meaning of this verse?
Where are the sources of their consensus? Two sources are referred to : The Hadiths and the Koran itself. What is strange is that Ibn kathir did not mention any hadith to support the meaning that is being proposed? Is there anything wrong with the hadiths related to this verse? Is it because he might fear that the hadith in question may have problematic authenticity? What is obvious is that the author preferred to make use of the Koran only in trying to give a meaning to the verse, that is, the self-satisfactory verses of the Koran. The verses he gave come from (6:115). This verse may indeed clarify the meaning of the first verse. The fact that Ibn Kathir made use of this verse to explain the first verse as self-satisfactory may be insufficient. By explaining a verse by other information coming from another Surat cannot absolutely give a full account of the meaning given that the coranic verses have been revealed according to specific context or circumstances. Besides, we can not divorce the Koran from its historic context. So, it is hard to be contended with this unique way of giving the meaning of such a verse. However, it is understandable given the true meaning of such a verse belongs to God only. Allah said: Ayah 7 in Surat Al-'Imran : No one knows their true meanings except Allah and those who are firmly rooted in the knowledge of the Religion.This goes along with, "We believe in it, all of it is from our Lord" and none will understand the message except men of comprehension." Now, let us see what the tradition say about the revelation of the first verse of this surat?

The only context surrounding the revelations of the first verse of surat 94 comes from Islamic tradition. There is no compelling source out of the Koran which may have clarified the context during which the Prophet received the revelation of the first verse. We know from the tradition that the verses of the surat 94, at least most of them, have been revealed when he was in Mekkah .Here, we may have no reason to argue if we believe in the veracity of the traditions or if we have faith in them, which mean we have faith in their reporters as well. Let us now give an account of the context according to the traditions. Indeed, according to the islamic traditions, the Prophet was reportedly shepherding the sheep in the desert in company with another close person (relative) which was also a boy. And then, two individuals with white appearances ( or dressed up in white) in appearance came and made the Prophet “sleep” on the (hot) sand( Please notice the following words). They opened his heart, rather his breast, (got it out ), cleansed it in what was reportedly like a basin, and after this put it back. We know that God is capable of anything. There lies in our faith too. Notwithstanding, God also gives a mind to reflect upon his creation. He gives us a rational mind to think of what might lead us to Him by the works He has done upon His creation and creatures (Nature, human beings, animals and so on). By doing this, He surely set up some irrefutable rules whereby we can come to recognize his Reality and Ultimate and endless power. Among those means, He endlessly reminds us of using our mind, intellect to judge things, to evaluate things with sincerity so that we may know the truth about his existence, his creation, and his works. It is in the name of such a principle as Rationality that any true Muslim who does not follow his or her faith blindlessly may naturally question the reality of this tradition. Indeed, it is hard to believe that the Prophet underwent such an experience in this desert of Arabia. It is likely that this story might have been concocted by some fake Muslims to justify a purified nature of the Prophet. The prophet himself rejected such a claim. He also admitted that he was a human being, and he could make some mistakes. The Koran itself confers this human nature to the Prophet. As a human being, we know he could make mistakes, but such mistakes may have nothing to do with the veracity of Islam. It is obvious that when the revelations were inspired to him, he was not the same Mouhammed that his neighbors got used to being with. He became the Divine Receptacle of the Divine Messages. Therefore, we see it is hard to refer to such doubtful traditions to support one’s point about the context of the revelations of the first verse. Knowing that this tradition may have been forged logically leads to admit that those who witnessed such a scene are untrue. This same rejection about such a tradition could bring about another consequence which is to question the veracity of the whole report or narration narrated by the reporters of hadiths. These same reporters have been told some lies about some reality that are against the scientific facts and proven realities which modern sciences have already shown us. This should not mean that we did not have to believe in the honesty, sincerity of the reporters. On the contrary, they did what Islam required of any sincere Muslim. However, their mistakes have been to letting certain doubtful traditions or hadiths make their path until us. This might have been due to the lack of scientific knowledge during their time. Even if there were no considerable developments in science and technology during their time, we can guess that some doubtful traditions go against the divine claims of the Koran. Besides this, they go against common sense as well. The Sufis have always been convinced that the context in which the Prophet received the verses should have been surrounded by mystery or some mysticism. Is it by mystic visions that he managed to clarify the meaning of the Koran? We do not believe that such mystic visions could only be accountable for such a miracle as the Koran. We do believe in his (Muhammed’s) receiving the Revelation thanks to the Archangel Gabriel which appears to be the Go-Between in the revealing. We do believe that some doubtful hadith have been made up to discredit this sincere Prophet of God.
Hence, if there is some doubt to bear upon the context in which this verse was revealed, it must have been something which can rationally give an account of such a revelation. What was likely taking place? What did take place while this revelation of the first verse was inspired? We may not know for sure, but it is likely that we can provide some rational explanations about what might have occurred. Next, we will deal with this plausible interpretation.(To be continued...)

2007-04-07T21:26:00.000-07:00

Dear Cara,
It is the nature of human beings
to be ungrateful towards
those who may even lay down
their own life for helping other
people to succeed. This is what
I call "Self-Sacrifice". There are
so many former students who
are aware of your efforts to
help them either by your teaching
or counseling. If they are in
the place where they are, it is
undoubtedly because of your
assistance, whether moral or
intellectual.
Today, nobody could ignore or
deny how important your
teachings are or "remain". In
fact, this is an opportunity to
tell you how much I feel thankful
for teaching me, for being
aware of my earlier lack of
proficiency in English. I would
not say that you are the only
one who contributed to this
achievement, but you seem to
be the most influential among
other teachers. This is a time to
thank you, time to recognize
how helpful your training was--
time to make your works
known. Thanks to you, I am
getting older emotionally, intellectually,
and morally.
It looked as if my former
teacher in my country were
talking to me again. I endlessly
hear his voice out of his old
town, his voice teaching how
gratefulness seems to be a sine
qua non, a life or death condition
to succeed. One day, he
was talking to his pupils. He
said, "Anyone who would like
to succeed in his life only has
one thing to do, which is to
thank the heavens, parents, and
teachers. Anyone who is willing
to do so, will be rewarded
either on the earth or in the
hereafter or both of them. Remember
to give heed and respect
to your parents. Do not
forget to thank anybody who
helps you especially while looking
for knowledge. Pay attention,
pay heed to them; then,
the success will undoubtedly
come out." May this lesson
remain among us as guidance.
May your blessings, teacher, be
upon me and all the followers

Civilization : The Touareg

2007-03-16T21:10:00.000-07:00

"Better walking without knowing where,than sitting doing nothing," Touareg Proverb

Different theories have been put forward to dealing with the mysterious origin of these legendary people. Some believe that they are most likely the descendants of ancient Berber (from the Greek word “Barbaros”, meaning “Barbarian”) named after “Numidians” by the Latin later on. As for them, these so-called legendary people of Northern Africa stemmed from the Berber family group, the same Berber who used to inhabit the banks and the surrounding areas of the Sahara desert. According to some theories, it is believed that these people’s ancestors were the so-called Paleo -Berber
who evolved and gave birth to the Proto-Berber of the protohistory. Others believe that they-these so-called legendary people- have such particular characteristics, whether linguistic or social-cultural, that it is unlikely they belong to the line of the Berber. No matter their origin, these so-called legendary people have ever amazed those who approached them -explorers, scientists, or simple adventurers. The people to whom we are referred are the Touareg , people whose lifestyle, lore, culture still appeal to our imagination, sounding as a pure wonder.
Who are they? Which society are they living in? What are their traditions? In short, what is in fact the nature of their civilization?

There is a great deal of controversy over the etymological meaning of the term “Touareg”; Indeed, experts at Linguistics still appear to hold contentious views about the original sense of the name “Touareg”. Whereas some adepts etymologically consider “Touareg” as simply a Berber name, other adepts at Linguistics, in fact, reckon that the name “Touareg” is most unlikely from the Berber. By doing so, they radically challenge the earlier or previous viewpoint. As for these Linguists, it is rather most likely “Twarig”, known as a broken plural of Targi-an Arabic word the former meaning of which was “Inhabitants of Targa”. Meaning “drainage channel” in Berber, “Targa” is also pointed out as the Libyan region usually known as Fezzan by the Touareg.
Notwithstanding, most Linguists tend to recognize “Touareg” as stemming from an Arabic source. It is not only commonly believed that the word “Touareg” comes from an Arabic origin, but it also seems admitted that the Arabic root for the word “Touareg” should, by translation, be referred to as “Tawariq” as well.
Even though the etymological origin of the term “Touareg” might be arguable according to the Linguistic viewpoint, it is incontrovertible that the word “Touareg” historically had a socio-geographical meaning. Thanks to historical records, we know that many explorers and visitors and historians, especially since Leo Africanus , used to apply the terminology “Touareg” to some Berber populations located in North Africa. Most of these inquisitive adventurers or seekers came up with an ethnic-based, or, at least, a socio-geographical approach to grasp the ethnicity of the Touareg. Since their perspective denotes such a socio-ethnic analysis, a great many Touaregs tend to be reticent to the ethnic, rather, the Berber affiliations. Instead, they would rather call themselves as “Kel Tamasheq” or “Kel Tamajaq” which literally means “Speakers of Tamasheq”.

Whether historians or ethnologists, numerous are the experts who view Touaregs as a Berber ethnic group (Berbers of Sahara). Being classified as Berber people, this suggests that they look much closer to Northwest African Berbers and West African ones in terms of culture and ethnicity. Whether be it socio-geographical or ethnic-based concepts, it still remains that most definitions- relative to Touaregs- are imbued with ethnic systems, that is, with ethnicity. It seems difficult to clearly define these people without falling into racial or ideological notions. What is more is that it is all the more difficult so as there are more and more people- within Touaregs themselves even within some social scientists- that go against this way of defining the Touareg people. Most ethnologists believe and argue that touaregs are defined by language and culture, not by (simply) ethinicity. This is likely why most Touaregs would prefer to give themselves the name “Speakers of Tamasheq” rather than being confined or assimilated unto the broad large and ethical classification of Berber group. Besides this aspect, different names, denominations, appellations have been attributed to Touaregs including the so-called “Blue Men” and “Free-men”.
The name “Blue-Men” of the Desert seems to have nothing to do with ethnicity or particular membership relation. Instead, the name is used to refer to the habits of the Touareg to wearing blue-like dress code. The most distinguishable feature remains the veil called “Taguelmost” by the Touareg. The veil itself shows an important social gap within community. Depending upon the social status, the color of veil generally differs. Common people get used to wearing blue veils, but only chiefs are allowed to put black, dark -like ones on. So, depending on the color of the veil dyed with indigo or the veil itself, inquisitive foreign visitors got accustomed to referring to them as either the “Blue-Men” or simply the “People of the veil”. In fact, the phrase “People of the veil” was known long time ago. Some ancient books of history, especially during Antiquity, referred to the Touareg as “People of the veil”. Furthermore, there are narrative passages which mention and help show how the Ancient Historian perceived the Touareg: “The nobles of these people wear, as I have said, a black veil on their heads, of which a part is used for covering the face all but for eyes. They never leave it: when they want to eat they have to uncover their months each time they take a bit, and quickly cover them up again” (qtd.the people of the veil, ch.6-Pastoralist Berbers: Nomad, Slaves, and Saints.)
While the name “Blue-men” is now widespread and commonplace, the calling “Free-men” or “Imazaghan” (also “Imashagan” or “Imaghan” in Touareg languages) does not look so well-known, yet found in study books. In fact, the name “Imazaghan” comes from the Touareg themselves, from their own perspective. It symbolizes this so-called ideal of freedoms, specifically freedom of actions, of expressions, of beliefs, and so on. Touaregs have ever claimed such freedoms; these attributes of independence really appear to them as natural or inherent. They always seem and even remain to be proud of.

Aside from these different aspects germane to the Touareg people, it dawned on researchers that the touareg culture is ancient and incredibly rich, though complex, concerning many aspects. The famous Danish anthropologist Johannes Nicolaise acknowledged that he believed to have found among Touaregs a rich old culture living in exemplary harmony with its natural environment fairly uninfluenced by modern European civilization. (qtd. in Touaregs: The Blue People 8)
Touareg society faces traditional social stratification. There is indeed a gradual, social hierarchy within the society. The society itself is essentially composed of an upper class of nobles and a lower class of servants. Otherwise, it deals with nobility and vassals.
As a matter of fact, the societal system looks like a feudal one, consisting of a small number of nobles (Aristocrats), a considerable majority of vassals, and a lower class of black non-Touareg serfs who are in charge of agricultural tasks.
According to different social classes, we can distinguish the imusa (warrior-Aristocrats), imrad (vassal-Herdmen), and the inhaden (toolmaking Men).
When time went by, the society evolved. On one hand, another class of slaves called “Eklan” came out in favor of different wars. Many “eklan” were originally “slaves”, either captured during warfare or “bargained”, rather, bought at Asian slave markets. The “ekhlan” or “ikhlan”- brown-skinned people- are likely supposed to be from the descent of ancient slaves known as Bela. On the other hand, with the coming of Islam, a major change in the configuration of the society broke out. In contrast to earlier times, the religious social class called “Ineslemen” occurred and came into being integrated in the society. These Muslim are considered to be the “Holy People” or “Saints”, teaching and preaching Islamic tenets. They are much praised, and they are sometimes venerated. These devout Muslims are not only used to performing religious ceremonials such as communal prayers, but they are also seen as playing a role of “healers” when the populations face misfortune or severe diseases. To resume, the Islamic invasion helped the settling down of these religious Muslims or believers within the community, and Islam made them become an integral part of the Toureg social structure. Besides this, as a complement, it is really interesting to notice another important thing regarding the societal structure. Specialists almost unanimously came to agree upon the tribal nature of the society. One of the most renowned historian, anthropologist, and Linguist Danish Karl-G Prasse, in his famous book Touaregs: The Blue People stated “The Touaregs live in a tribal society.” What does it mean when one says Touaregs live in a tribal society? One might think Touaregs have a deep feeling of membership relations. It is a group of people for whom the affiliations of a given tribe is much-needed. The Touareg people are very often related to each other in terms of tribes. The tribal systems which took place and still remain among different social classes regulate the social hierarchy. However, let us see how Karl Prasse can expound and clarify this idea of tribal systems? Indeed, while referring to the tribal systems or tribal organizations in general, Karl Prass affirmed “In a tribal society, the individual feels that he (or she) is protected by his family and by his tribe and perhaps by a superior confederation of tribes.” Later on, he précised “That is precisely the situation of the Touaregs who all live in states where other ethnic groups are in power” (16).
Similarly, one could interpret the societal organization of the Touaregs in terms of a system of castes. In fact, this idea is quite the same as the idea previously mentioned about the social divisions which basically consists of nobility class, vassal class, and religious one. It is useful to recall and insist on this latter point as K.Prasse witnessed it. Indeed, while describing the systems of castes within the community, Karl Prasse added “It must be noted that Touareg society is based on a system of castes. In addition to noble tribes and vassal tribes, there are religious tribes, artisans, slaves, and peasants” (16).
Another important feature of Touareg society is its matrilineage. It looks like as if matrilineage were inherent to the Touareg society. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language states that matrilineage is a line of descent as traced through women on the maternal side of a family (1080). Many ethnologists are in favor of the matrineal aspect of the Touareg society, but they tend to challenge the matriarchal viewpoint on which some experts have tried to put emphasis. According to the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, a matriarchate or matriarchy is a social system in which the mother is head of the family. It is also defined as a family, community, or society based on this system or governed by women (1080). Some researchers pointed out that Touareg society is not only matrineal, but it is also matriarchal. As a matter of fact, some controversies began occurring. Whether matrilineal or matriarchal, one point should be paid heed to. Depending on which aspects of the women’s role one puts an emphasis on, one will come up with a specific conclusion. Notwithstanding, some evidences show, by means of deep investigations ,that it is most likely reasonable to say that the society itself should be considered as matrilineal, but not necessarily matriarchal. On the contrary, this should not put or set aside the importance of women’s role in the Touareg society. On one hand, as mentioned earlier, most of the lineage process is set up through women or women’s inheritance. On the other hand, women have always played a key role within the community and the family. Firstly, they look after the education of children. Secondly, they take part in the social activities such as environmental protections, Market management (trade, commerce), farming, and herding. As a matter of fact, they do play a role in economic sectors. Thirdly, they also used and keep using to play a key role in maintaining the traditional values of the society. In most cases, they represent, they incarnate not only the tradition, but they strive for keeping it. This is why one could refer to them as “Guardians of the tradition”.
In addition to the nature of Touareg society, different expressions of culture are witnessed within the community. Touareg art is mainly expressed in terms of jewelry, leather, and metal saddle decorations. There are also traditional handicrafts –clay-baked pottery, metal sword (Takoba), gold and silver-made necklaces and earrings which remain wonder. Another form of expressions of art is through songs, poems, and dances. Music is now basically the most famous mode of expressions; it is traditional, and its main topics deal with dead (martyr) or alive Men, Women, Life, and Nature (Sahara, deserts). One Touareg band (music band) is the sensational group Tinariwen which uses electric guitars and traditional music tools at the same time.
Dance is a commonplace practice in the society. During special pageants or celebrations, one can admire Touaregs’ beautiful dance. As an example, the dance “Zarraf” is a dance performed by Touareg women during wedding. In addition, in one particular dance, each gender stays in a different line, facing the other group or partner. Once the music “goes by”, a rhythmic, cadenced movement of the body “goes” and “goes on” until the two partners or eventually the two genders get closer, and then the dance starts over again.
Language is another factor of cultural expressions. The language spoken by Touaregs is “Tamasheq”. This language is believed to stem from a southern Berber language. As a matter of fact, Tamasheq or Tamajaq are most probably derived from the Berber language spoken by ancient“Numidians” (name given to Berber by the Latin) in pre-roman period. Touaregs also have a system of writing which is considered to come from the original Berber script used by the same Numidians during pre-roman times. This is writing is named after “Tifinagh”.
One major component of a culture is religion. Before Islam was introduced into the society, Touaregs practiced what could be called as “Ante-Islamic paganism”. In other terms or words, one could liken them to pagan or polytheists. They had pre-Islamic animistic beliefs including the worshipping of several gods, of nature, of spirits. They also practiced divination. Moreover, superstitions and magic prevailed.
Islam was introduced into the Touareg lifestyle around the 16th century. It was a sunni form of Islam. Although Islam later became an intregral part of the spiritual and social life or existence of Touaregs, there would be a great deal of non-Islamic beliefs performed by Touaregs. Meanwhile, those beliefs are still in progress in some regions.
For instance, a great many Touaregs still remain superstitious (Perhaps due to a high rate of illiteracy); they often invoke dead Saints in their daily life or prayers as well. Besides, many keep on with divination. Most of them do not get rid of their habits of wearing talismans with Islamic writings. In short, they still practice a passive form of Islam which sometimes goes against the sacred principles of the Muslim Religion. As an illustration, it had been said that once you asked a Touareg why he wore a veil, he would tell you that wearing it helped ward off evils (evil spirits). Taking up to the point, one can notice that a good deal of residual beliefs of earlier times still continue to be incorporated into current socio-religious practices. Some traditional sacrifices to dead forefathers or ancestors are in progress. In her article titled “Alms, Elders, and Ancestors: The spirit of the Gift among Touareg”, Susen.J. Rasmussen, while referring to the practice of alms offerings among Touaregs of Niger affirmed that alms offerings are prominent in ideals and practices surrounding elders, ancestors, and mortuary rituals among the Touareg People of Niger Republic West Africa.

Besides the cultural aspect of the society, the Touareg, like other people, met with other cultures: Cultural encounters. Throughout history, Touaregs encountered other Berber cultures such as North African and Mediterranean ones. Through Ages, Touaregs also had close relationships with people living in the sahelian regions of Africa especially Sudanese regions of western Africa. Many social contacts were favored by economic, religious and political (tribal) reasons or motives. Likewise, owing to different armed conflicts (warfare) to which they faced and owing to the natural nomadism which prevailed, cultural encounters gained in importance.
Nowadays, it is thought that Touaregs managed to meet with their neighboring populations because of the progressive dryness of the Sahara desert essentially. Indeed,
It is believed that when the Sahara dried out about 10,000 years, its surrounding populations faced migrations. As for the Touareg people, it appears that they traveled down from the North Africa in a series of migrations, a progressive and continual migration. Thanks to this perpetual flux of migration, they left behind vivid testimonies of their earlier presence. For instance, when they migrated to the sahelian regions of Mali, they founded the city of Timbuktu in the eleventh century. Timbuktu –the mysterious city-has ever compelled the attention of adventurers, explorers, visitors, and scientists. It was believed that it contained priceless treasures, human, historical, natural, archeological, cultural treasures. Many writers began authoring books about this prestigious city of Timbuktu in the northern Mali. By 1300s, it had become one of Mali major commercial and cultural centers.
In favor of their cultural encounters, an important change relative to the Touareg’s lifestyle took place. Even if there is still controversy over this point, one can not ignore that Touaregs knew how to take advantage of social benefices resulted from their interactions with other Berber. One can easily remark that some foreign cultural habits were integrated into the Touaregs’ mode of life. For instance, certain traditional meals, clothing, or even beliefs believed inherent to Touaregs turned out to be from ancient Berber people previously established in the sahelian regions. Those cultural borrowings have been mentioned by well-known historians in their works. In his Book, Africa: Its peoples and their culture, history, George Peter Murdock draws our attention to this idea of cultural borrowings when he states“ In the case of the Touaregs and Udalan, the adaptation has involved so many genuine innovations, as well as borrowings from both the indigenous Negroes and the Bedouin Arabs”(115).
Today, most Touaregs become reconverted to agriculture. Most of them are becoming farmers even if there are still a few pastoralists among them. However, the general trend is that they are more and more concerned with farming rather than grazing or herding. Leading such a life implies a sedentary life. In fact, they are largely and increasingly settling down. In other words, their nomadic life is changing in sedentary one. Many of them left their earlier geographical areas; they left those rural areas for urban areas like large cities (Agadez, Timbuktu) much more populated and “urbanized”. Some attentive researchers remarked this progressive sedentary process. Some go further, and they simply aver that touaregs are now sedentary. While reading the following quotation from Going Global: Tuareg Jewelry in the International Market, you will notice some important expressions used so as to qualify the“contemporary” Touareg: “The Touaregs are a loose confederation of groups of pastoral nomads (Indeed, some do exist), settled agriculturists and today, city dwellers, who speak a Berber language known as Tamasheq or Tamacheck” (Thomas K.Seligman). What worries is that this ongoing migration towards urban cities (urbanizing going with modernizing and with sedentary living) might affect Touaregs’ ancient traditions and traditional and nomadic nature.
The social context in which Touareg society actually evolves, especially after the Independence of African countries around 1960s, is worthy of great interests. One of the major problem deals with cultural minority issues. Many suffer from a lack of interest towards them from the new independent states in which they live. They denounce the persistent marginalization that they have been undergoing for awhile. In fact, what is on table is the acknowledgement of their cultural rights, the acknowledgement of their will for founding this so-called “Touareg Nation”. What do we know about this alleged “Nation”? In short, it is likely that there used to be a “Nation” (probably melting pop races), a Touareg “Nation” having peopled the geographical areas stretching from Mediterranean banks to the Sahara deserts, a Nation enriched by its social and artistic and religious and scientific achievements. However, this remains pure hypothesis, if not, pure fantasy. Nevertheless, many Touareg activists still hope and aim at bringing into existence this so-called Touareg “Nation”. In order to claim their self- proclaimed or “legitimate” rights, their different rights, Touaregs’ will took different forms especially through armed conflicts. Their claim gained in importance when they started fighting the established governments following the Independence in 1960s. We bear in mind the tragic civil wars occurred in the regions of Mali in 1990s.
In the early 1990s, guerilla warfare broke out between Mali Government and the belligerent Touaregs who were militarily trained and equipped by the Libyan State further to the catastrophic droughts in 1972 and 1982-1985.
In accordance with their Laws, the concerned States, (Mali, but also Niger) chose to address the rebellion or the “militia” by means of weapons rather than dialogue(s). This resulted in the killing of thousands of civil populations and an exceptional migration of hundreds of thousands of people to Algeria, Mauritania, Niger, Burkina Faso, and Ivory Coast. The counter attack by the Mali and Niger governments was tough. One author, Gabriel Ben Dor, in his book Minorities and the State in the Arab World précised “The larger Touareg communities in Mali and Niger face severe repression from the regimes there (49).
Owing to these civil conflicts, the whole Touareg society became disorganized, so disorganized that intestine wars or conflicts between Touaregs themselves and between Touareg tribes came out. Some Touareg leaders or tribes’ chiefs did not hesitate to accuse the concerned governments to be behind this friction among Touaregs. One important consequence which resulted from this is the establishment of two armed fractions of Touaregs, each having its own leadership and directives.
Thanks to the interference of neighboring States, foreign and diplomatic initiatives, the warfare ended up with the signature of a civil and peaceful pact whose main purposes consisted of giving a larger autonomy to the Touareg, of furthering the socio-economic growth within the community, of promoting educational and health infrastructures.
Nowadays, Touaregs are facing to one of the most environmental crisis that they have never witnessed before. Desert looks ubiquitous. It cannot seemingly stop progressing. This constant progress of the Sahara Desert compels Touaregs to perpetual migrations. All of the surrounding areas become dryer and dryer. The animals such cattle, goats, sheep, and so on are suffering from this situation. There is hardly water nearby the living places. Moreover, a great deal of vegetations disappears. Meanwhile, the absence of pure waters and suitable and healthy environment give raise to current water-related diseases. All of these of factors, either natural, environmental, or human-made , leave no other choice to Touaregs- frequently accompanied by their flocks or cattle- than moving from arid areas to more prosperous and fertile ones. This brings about another drawback dealing with the conflict between farmers and pastoralists this time. The social tension between agriculturists and cattle-herders (especially nomadic populations such as Touaregs) is reaching its height. As a result, many people are reportedly deadly injured. Some States deplore hundreds of victims due to this particular conflict between farmers and pastoralists annually. Actually, the environmental crisis within the Sahel and the banks of the Sahara strengthens social crisis, worsens the relationship between communities, and menace thousands of living species. The Sahelian Social Systems describes the increasing gravity of the situation as follows:
Situations of competition and conflict among individuals and among groups are multiplying. Disorder is introduced into relations between societies and nature. Space is becoming more scarce and climatic conditions are worsening, accentuating and accelerating the transformations that are underway to the point that where the sustainable exploitation of ecosystems is now under threat (Bradley et al.214).

So far, we have seen how complex and rich remains the Touareg’s culture. We have also analyzed the major components of the Touareg’s civilization. Likewise, we have witnessed the dynamism of this particular Berber culture through its historical evolution. However, what is worrying is a progressive loss of certain Touareg traditional values especially during this era of globalization and urbanization. It is imperative to urge the concerned countries to try to preserve and value the priceless symbolism that the Touareg Cultures represent or incarnate. These “people of the veil”, these so-called “Blue-men” ,being settled down between different countries-Mali, Niger, Algeria, Burkina Faso and being estimated between 100,000 and 3.5 millions, do not cease fascinating our imagination and stirring up a good deal of interrogations about our own origin given their ancient history dating back to hundreds of thousands of years.

Works cited
American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. 4th ed. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2000.
Bradley Phil,, Dellville Langne Phillipe, Gregoire Emmanuel, Janin Pierre, Koechlin
Jean, and Raynaud Claude. Sahelian Social Systems.London: Routledge,1997.
Gabriel Ben-Dor. Minorities and the State in the Arab World. Boulder, CO:
Lynne Rienner, 1999.
George Peter Murdock. Africa: Its People and their Culture and History. N.Y:
Mc Graw, 1959.
Karl-G Prasse. Touaregs: The Blue-People. Copenhagen : Museum Tusculanuim
Press,1995.
Susen.J. Rasmussen. Reflections on Witchcraft, Danger, and Modernity among Touareg.
Africa, vol.74, 2004.
http://www.questia.com/SM.qst.
Thomas K. Seligman. Going Global: Tuareg Jewelry in the International Marketplace.
African Arts, vol.39, 2006.
http://www.questia.com/SM.qst.

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